Theories of differentiation of sexual roles in America
There are classes "for boys" and "for girls", "male" and "female" work, purely "masculine" and purely "female" behavior. Different explanations for the differentiation of sexual roles are suggested.
Theory of Functionalism
Supporters of the theory of functionalism Talcott Parsons and Robert Bails expressed the idea of a positive function of differentiation of sex roles. According to their point of view, this way socialization of children and regulation of sexual relations are carried out. They believe that in a modern family, the couple must perform two different roles.
The instrumental role is to maintain the connection between the family and the outside world - this is mainly the work and providing the family with money;an expressive role presupposes first of all the regulation of relationships within the family, for example, caring for children and settling disputes.
How is the division of responsibilities between spouses based on these two roles? Parsons and Bails believe that the wife's ability to procreate and caring for children determines her expressive role;a husband who can not perform these biological functions becomes an instrumental partner. In American society, the instrumental role is associated with the financial support of the family. Since the husband-father is not at home during working hours, women try to take on the main concern for children, creating an atmosphere of love and mutual support in the house.
Some sociologists argue that this theory too simplifies the complexity of sexual roles in our time. They believe that it only confirms the correctness of the outdated systems of gender ideals and gender roles, which( as we have seen from the example of the tribes from New Guinea, studied by Mead) are by their nature not at all "inevitable."
Theory of Conflict
Parsons and Bails's opinion on sex roles is based on the belief that family members must perform a variety of work. Randall Collins expressed the opposite point of view. He believes that gender inequality is caused by a conflict between the dominant( male) and dependent groups( women).
According to Collins, the initial basis of male dominance over women was that men, being larger and stronger than women, forcibly subordinated them for the sake of sexual satisfaction. To legitimize men's access to women and consolidate their dominance over them, the representatives of the stronger sex gained the right to "sexual property".Probably, there are different ways to dispose of this property. In the arrangement of marriages, men's sexual access to women is linked to the distribution of land and wealth between family members and necessarily involves the exchange of these resources. For example, in a primitive society, a woman could be exchanged for two cows. According to Collins, there is a kind of "sex market" in which men and women trade among themselves, seeking to choose the most suitable sexual partner for themselves.
The basic idea of Collins is that the measure of the dependence of a woman on a man is determined by two factors:
1) material dependence;
2) the value of women as property to be exchanged.
Does a woman have a rich father who will provide her with a dowry, or is she a poor widow? Can she give birth to children, or is she too weak? In more advanced societies( like ours), women are allowed to own wealth;they are allowed to study and work outside the home, this somewhat increases their cost in the exchange. Collins writes: "The tendency to increase the economic independence of women from men means that sexual relations can be less related to marriage;in courtship between men and women, short-term agreements can be concluded, with men and women benefiting from their charm or the ability to entertain a partner;in return they get sexual satisfaction. Women who have their own material means can claim the choice of a more attractive partner. "
The neo-Marxist theories of
Some theorists of neo-Marxism share the view of Collins that the basic relations between the sexes are connected with the domination of men and the subordination of women. But, in their opinion, the roots of this inequality - in the very structure of capitalism, excluding the freedom of sexual choice. Hartmann examines the complex connections between capitalism, patriarchy( the dominance of men over women, taking the form of a solid social system) and economic structure. He argues as follows.
1. By providing women with lower earnings than men, society supports the dominance of men. When women are paid less for the same job, it is more difficult for them to pay "their share" for refreshments when meeting with men or invite them somewhere to have fun together.
2. Low earnings encourage women to marry. Everyone wants to get more from life, and if a woman is not able to provide for herself the appropriate way of life, according to the logic of things, she should find a husband who can do it.
3. Married women work for their husbands, performing household duties. The services of the "ordinary housewife" - cleaning, cooking, stoking the furnace, taking care of children, washing, visiting stores, receiving guests, sewing, washing dishes, etc. - would cost many thousands of dollars in the labor market. Wife-housewives do not pay directly for their work;to a considerable extent reminiscent of slaves in the period before the Civil War, they receive food, clothing and shelter for their work, although the majority of wives are materially better off than slaves.
4. Domestic duties place women at a disadvantage in the labor market. Despite the use of devices that facilitate homework( for example, microwave ovens and vacuum cleaners), maintaining order in the house requires an extremely long time. Therefore, many women do not want to work full time.
In a similar theory proposed by Barron and Norris( 1976), it is argued that the subordination of women is a way to achieve market flexibility under capitalism. They divide the labor market into primary and secondary sectors. The primary sector includes relatively high-paid and stable positions;The secondary sector includes relatively low-paid jobs, characterized by increased turnover of staff. Low-paid work( for example, nurses, secretaries and hairdressers) is performed mostly by women;they constitute a minority in the posts of the primary sector, for example, the head of the association, the senator or the owner of the enterprise.
Barron and Norris argue that there are three main reasons why capitalists have the opportunity to use women in this way. First, women are less reliable workers than men, because they can always "quit" for family reasons. Although this seems a myth, surveys show that most women are forced to work to maintain the financial solvency of the family;this trend is maintained despite the statistics. Secondly, women value less than work;In addition, they constantly leave work because of pregnancy. In the third place, women who perform low-paid jobs in the chancery or service sector are deprived of the organizational skills of men from the United Trade Union of Workers in the Automotive and Aviation Industry or the Truckers' Union.(In this connection, it is interesting to note that almost all the leaders of the international women's union of garment workers are men.) Although having created a number of unions that try to unite clerical workers or protect the interests of middle managers and clerical workers for the common good, women usually did not seek specialsuccess in the formation of new collective organizations.
The non-psychoanalytic theory of
We have already mentioned the point of view of Chodorova that gender differences can be the result of those identification patterns that were learned in childhood. Chodorova detailed her position, arguing that this approach is more true than the explanations based on biological gender differences or analysis of patterns of conscious socialization. She begins her argument, emphasizing the fact that "women usually take on the basic care of the child in infancy, and in the future have a major impact on the socialization of girls."In childhood, both boys and girls more or less identify themselves only with their mothers, which occurs as a result of unconscious processes. However, boys are more likely to experience difficulties associated with the formation of male self-awareness separately from their mothers;the primary identification of girls with mothers is almost not disturbed during all childhood and even all life.
Boys face complex problems in the process of adaptation to life, as their primary identification with their mother is violated, but girls face their own problems during the assimilation of sexual roles. Chodorova calls the experience acquired by girls in school, "pseudo-education."Although, in many respects, girls are treated in the same way as boys, there is a hidden tendency that girls absorb: despite the fact that good marks and sports are encouraged among girls, it is implied that these achievements should not prevent them from being "feminine"and in the future become wives and mothers.
Each of these theories has certain merits, but none provides an exhaustive explanation of all kinds of differentiation of sexual roles. Probably, for sociologists studying the problem of the correlation of sexual roles and inequality, it would be useful to determine the types of societies and situations that best explain each of these competing theories, and then to identify factors that contribute to the formation of the system of values of each society.
Sexual equality: the prospect of
The status of men and women in society is constantly changing, and this trend is likely to continue. The need for changes at the economic, legislative and household levels suggests that this process will continue throughout the 1980s. The number of men questioning the basic principles of differentiation of sexual roles is increasing, and such a reassessment of values takes on a profound meaning.
Despite the significant improvement in the status of women, we learned that there are many sources of resistance to further progress. First, this resistance is associated with the active discrimination of women by men trying to maintain their privileges, power and wealth. Secondly, the inequality between men and women is deeply rooted in most of our social structures. To make further progress in this direction, some "concessions" at various levels are necessary. Among them, the following measures should be noted:
1) changing patterns of socialization predisposing women to reconciliation with their subordinate position;
2) changing the attitude of fathers to their domestic responsibilities, increasing their participation in the upbringing of children;
3) increase the flexibility of training programs and work schedules in institutions, allowing parents to combine college or work with emergency family matters;
4) creation of new opportunities for receiving professional assistance in caring for children by families from various classes;
5) the complete repeal of laws and regulations that allow direct or indirect discrimination against women.
Like many phenomena, sexual inequality is part of a wider system of social order. To make this phenomenon significantly changed, the system itself must change.
Abstract
1. Sociologists examine the differences between men and women on the basis of the analysis of the four components of gender identity:
a) biological sex, or primary and secondary physical characteristics that determine whether a person is male or female;B) gender identity, or awareness of one's gender;C) gender ideals, or cultural stereotypes of behavior of men and women;
d) sexual roles, or division of labor, rights and responsibilities in accordance with gender.
Although it is assumed in society that these four components are harmoniously interconnected, often they are in contradiction with each other.
2. Biologically induced sexual differences begin to appear in the embryo in the second month of pregnancy, when the formation of primary sexual characteristics occurs. These include the testicles that form in the embryo, programmed to become a male, and the ovaries that are characteristic of the female embryo. In addition, during this period embryos begin to produce various hormones, thanks to which in the youth secondary sexual characteristics are formed: mammary glands and hairline in women;more rough voice, hair on the face and body of men.
3. It is difficult to determine whether there is a biological predisposition to certain behavior in men and women, because from birth to children of different sex are treated differently. After studying the hermaphrodites, John Mani concluded that biological factors can only affect the predisposition of men and women to certain types of behavior.
4. According to McCoby and Jaklin, the development of gender identity involves three processes: a) modeling, or imitation of adult behavior;b) reinforcement, or encouragement of behavior, corresponding to the sex of the child, as well as the Judgment of inappropriate behavior, c) self-socialization, or the product of patterns of behavior that are most approved by others.
5. Studies of gender roles, characteristic of the representatives of the three tribes of New Guinea( conducted by Margaret Mead), clearly demonstrated the inconsistency of beliefs that one gender is more suitable for performing a certain role than another. In the Arapeshic tribe, both men and women learn the roles associated with caring for children. On the contrary, men and women from the Mundugumor tribe are equally hostile to each other and to others. In the Tchambuli tribe, the roles of men and women are completely different, but they are opposite to roles common in our society.
6. During the colonial period, when the family actually produced everything for itself, the work of women inside and outside the home was no less important than the work of men. Initially, in factories, women constituted the main labor force. In the XIX century.middle-class women did not work outside the home;the man was the breadwinner of the family, and the wife was the housewife.
7. Stereotypes of sexual roles have become less stable under the influence of studies that have established that all people have a combination of the so-called male and female traits. In addition, the movement of women contributed to the reduction of discrimination in employment.
8. Nowadays, more than half of all married women work outside the home;the number of women wishing to have children and work full-time increased significantly. The number of women enrolled in graduate school also increased, although many of them still choose purely "female" areas of science, for example, library science and the education of children. According to Horner, one of the reasons for women's unwillingness to work in areas where men predominate is probably a kind of "fear of success", or the feeling that, if successful, they will be considered "unfeminine".
9. The majority of working women occupy low-paid "women's" positions and perform mostly clerical work. Women working in areas where men predominate often face difficulties in making them move to more "female" jobs within the industry, for example, in women, women prefer the profession of a pediatrician.
10. Functionalism explains the differentiation of sex roles in the modern family in this way: one of the spouses must perform the instrumental role that ensures the family's connection with the outside world;the other assumes the expressive role that regulates the relationships within the family. According to the proponents of this theory, the wife's ability to procreate determines her expressive role, and her husband plays an instrumental role.
11. Collins believes that the main cause of gender inequality is the conflict between the dominant group( men) and the subordinate group( women).According to this theory, men's dominance was initially due to the fact that, being physically stronger than women, men could forcibly subordinate them for the sake of sexual satisfaction. Theorists of neo-Marxism are looking for the roots of inequality in the complex system of connections inherent in capitalism, the patriarchy and the structure of the economy.
12. According to Chodorova, gender differences are formed with the help of identification samples, acquired in childhood. Both boys and girls initially identify themselves with their mothers. In the future there is a rapprochement between boys and fathers, while girls continue to identify themselves with their mothers. Thus, girls realize that women are obliged to take care of young children.
13. New changes are needed to further improve the situation of women, including with regard to the joint participation of parents in the upbringing of children, the increased flexibility of curricula and work schedules in institutions, and the repeal of laws that discriminate against women.