Biological sex: male / female
Biological and social factors that affect gender identity are so intertwined that it would take Herculean efforts to unravel them. Imagine that you just had a baby, but in the maternity hospital it is forbidden to tell the parents the sex of the baby. Probably, you would have experienced the strongest impatience. It would be caused by your longing to know the sex of the child. But why is it so important to you? It is very simple - from the birth of children we consciously or unconsciously treat them differently depending on their gender. From the moment of birth, children begin to realize their gender.
Physical differences
Of course, there are some physical differences between the sexes. Male babies are usually somewhat longer and heavier than girls, their muscles are slightly stronger than girls;In addition, as a rule, their heart and lungs are also larger. By the age of 18, the strength of the muscles of women is almost 50 percent lower than that of men. Female babies usually begin to walk, talk earlier than boys, in addition, their teeth are pricked and bones develop;girls reach puberty one or two years earlier than boys. However, some of these differences may be due not only to biological factors;In boys, stronger muscles can form because they are more encouraged to play sports than girls.
The relatively short life expectancy of men is probably partly due to wars, accidents, stress arising at work in an atmosphere of competition. In connection with the change in sexual roles, these differences, apparently, are also subject to change.
Biological basis of the floor
The formation of the floor begins from the moment of conception. When the sperm and the egg merge, the father's 23 chromosomes and the mother's 23 chromosomes are combined, forming a new set of 46 chromosomes of the unborn child. The sperm can carry the sex chromosome X or Y and the egg cell only to the X chromosome. Set 46, XX is the code for the development of the female, and the set of 46, XY-male. Chromosomes contain all the information necessary to build a complex and unique organism.
The next stage in the development of sex is the formation of the sex glands. This process begins with the sixth week of embryo development. Up to this point, it is impossible to determine gender by external features, since they are of an obscure, uncertain nature. Both floors of have a single source of development, and only if the male Y chromosome is present in the embryo, the vaginal glands are transformed into testicles and the appearance of the male organism becomes possible. For this transformation is responsible for the special H-Y antigen, which is located on the male chromosome. If it does not exist, by the 12th week of embryo development, the process of formation of the female reproductive glands - ovaries - is automatically included.
The subsequent development of internal and external genital organs is determined by sex hormones, which soon begin to be produced by newly appeared sex glands( testes or ovaries).This third stage in the formation of sex begins at the end of the second month of intrauterine life. Only under the influence and with a sufficient amount of the male hormone - testosterone - typical male genital organs are formed, and in case of its lack, female genital organs alternatively develop. It should immediately be noted that both in the male and female body there are hormones of both sexes( in small amounts they are produced by the adrenal glands).Differences are only in their quantitative ratio: women have more female hormones and, conversely, men have male hormones. Hormones are spread by blood throughout the body and are a very powerful and effective tool for the management and coordination, development and operation of different cells, organs and systems of the body.
The decisive role in the development of the organism belongs to androgen( male hormones) in certain nodal, so-called critical periods of embryo development. These are the periods during which development can go on any option - male or female, And if there is no additional impact in the form of male hormones or they will not be enough, then the body independently performs a program for the formation of the female fetus. The first such period is associated with the formation of genital organs( 3-4th month of pregnancy) and is responsible for their "appearance."
The next critical period is associated with the formation of sexual orientation of the brain( presumably on the 4th-7th month of fetal development).It is less visible, but can most seriously affect the entire fate of a person. Functionally immature structures of the developing brain under the influence of hormones acquire an irreversible ability to form and regulate certain physiological processes in the body( including sexual functions), the willingness to implement certain behavioral programs. There is a period of "designing" the male or female hypothalamus( the brain center responsible for the body's holistic reactions).
Sex ratio. Despite the fact that theoretically the number of "male"( Y) and "female"( X) chromosomes is the same, at the time of conception the ratio of male and female zygotes is 160 to 100( 1), by the time of implantation this ratio has already reached 120 to 100( 2), and at the time of birth there are 107 boys per 100 girls( 3).
Under the influence of testosterone, the male brain becomes larger and heavier due to the increased growth of gray matter in the cerebral cortex. With the influence of hormones on the brain is associated the development of a number of psychological characteristics of men and women: language abilities and the best skills of communication, emotional interaction, fine motor skills in women;the advantages of men in performing logical, analytical and visual-spatial tasks, in solving mathematical problems. Testosterone reduces the development of the right hemisphere and enhances the specialization of the left hemisphere of the brain, leading to a greater level of aggression in men. Sex hormones contribute to the emergence of poluspecific( characteristic for a given sex) behavior, affect the programming of sexual orientation.
A. At the 6th week of pregnancy, the external genitalia of embryos are not different.
B. At 7-8 weeks of gestation, the future penis lengthens, and in the female fetus the membrane disappears and the primitive vagina opens.
B. By the 11-12th week of pregnancy in the male fetus, the median suture fuses, and in the female - the external genitalia acquire a characteristic appearance.
Formation of the fetal genitalia. In the seventh week of fetal development, the sex organs begin to transform under the influence of sex hormones. In the male fetus under the influence of androgens, the folds, which in female embryos turn into small labia, form the body of the penis. Sexual tubercle in women develops into the clitoris, and in men becomes the head of the penis. The folds of the abdominal wall become large labia in women and give rise to the scrotum in men.
Formation of the internal genital organs of the fetus:
A. At the 6th week of pregnancy, the male and female rudiments of the internal genitalia do not differ from each other.
B. At the 8th week of pregnancy, the testicles formed in the male fetus begin to secrete two active substances: the inhibitor of the Mullerian ducts leads to atrophy and disappearance of the ducts themselves, and testosterone stimulates the development of the wolf ducts into the epididymis, the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. In the absence of male hormones( as is the case with the female fetus), the muller-ducts develop into the uterus, the fallopian tubes and the inner third of the vagina, and the wolf channels dissolve and disappear.
B. By the 40th week of pregnancy, the male sex glands move into the scrotum, and the female fetus from the muller tubes forms a phalo-lopic tube, through which the eggs will move into the uterus.
TENDER IDENTITY AND IDEALS: FAMILY / FATHERNESS
Most members of society believe in generally accepted gender ideals - idealized notions about the purpose, behavior and feelings of men and women. Children who do not meet these ideals are called sorvants and mother's sons. A girl is called a tomboy, if she is self-confident, likes to compete with others and is fond of sports;the boy is considered a mama's son, if he is sensitive and inclined to sympathy, does not like football and runs away instead of giving change. Children, who are called toddlers or mamma's sons, immediately realize that their behavior is not approved, they often react to negative reinforcement and begin to carry themselves in accordance with their sex.
A negative reaction to "inappropriate" behavior is not the only factor that influences the development of gender identity. McCoby and Jacqueline suggest that it is influenced by three main processes: modeling, reinforcement and self-socialization.
Modeling of
In this process, children imitate the behavior of adults. First imitate the person who cares most about them - a mother or other person( usually a female) who gives them a lot of attention, for example, a nanny, a housekeeper or a crib worker. Although, as a rule, fathers spend much less time with their children than mothers, most children take a lot from their fathers and mothers, and later with friends of the family, teachers and people they see on TV.
It's interesting to note that when the models of both sexes are next to each other, small children do not necessarily mimic the behavior of an adult of the same sex. Studies show that preschoolers and junior pupils who are engaged in toys that are "appropriate" to their sex and who prefer to be friends with children of their gender tend to imitate adults with power and power, regardless of their gender. For example, if children have a choice of role models between a mom cooking dinner at home and a male chef working in a restaurant, and boys and girls are more likely to imitate the chef's skill.
Nancy Chodorova argues that basically the simulation is carried out in the earliest childhood. She believes that the differences of gender ideals are preserved due to the one-of-a-kind intimacy between mother and daughter."Under the influence of the early experience of girls and boys who felt women's care, the expectation is formed that the interests of mothers are completely focused on children and the main meaning of their lives is connected with caring for the well-being of children.
Daughters grow up identifying themselves with their mothers in accordance with these expectations. .. As a result of the maternal care experienced in childhood, the girls probably have a desire for maternal care for babies, and they will be ready to take on the long-term care of children. "
Psychoanalytic studies have shown that in the early stages of socialization, boys and girls identify themselves with their mothers. At later stages, girls usually retain their attachment to the mother;the boys begin to approach their fathers or other strong male figures. Thus, the boy must change his orientation at a time when he really needs emotional support, and problems can arise in this connection. Hederington's research suggests that under the influence of a strong father, the boy's self-consciousness is formed. In addition, it can be assumed that an imperious mother can prevent the young son from converging with his father.
Reinforcement
This concept is associated with awards and punishments. Parents encourage behavior that corresponds to the sex of the child and express disapproval of inappropriate behavior: the boys are praised if they have learned to throw the ball 50 feet further;adults usually grumble when full girls eat a second portion of dinner. Probably, boys are more often praised and scolded than girls. This is particularly noticeable when it comes to generally accepted patterns of behavior that correspond to sex. Parents are more concerned if their sons behave like mama's sons than when their daughters behave like rascals. While parents tend to condemn the lack of dependence of boys, they allow girls to be addicted to others and even approve of it. As a result, the boys learn the principle that one should count on one's own achievements in order to gain self-respect, while the self-respect of the girls depends on how others treat them.
McCoby and Jacqueline found that outsiders more than parents perceive children on the basis of generally accepted stereotypes of sexual behavior. Parents know the individual characteristics of their child and take them into account. Unfamiliar people who do not know the child, expect that he should behave "like a boy" or "like a girl".
Self-socialization of
This process, described by Lawrence Colberg, is related to the fact that children "prepare themselves for life in society" on the basis of verbal and non-verbal social interaction. Like actors trying to find different interpretations of a role, children reproduce the behavior of cunning, rude and generous, etc.people - the criterion for them are the responses of peers. Gradually, getting into thousands of life situations, children begin to realize that the embodiment of certain patterns causes respect or condemnation of others.
Although in some cases this process reflects the standards of parents, self-socialization also has its own identity. This partly explains the fact that sometimes the gender identity of growing children does not match the desires or expectations of their parents.
Ideals and identity
In the three processes just discussed( modeling, reinforcement and self-socialization), children learn to be aware of themselves as girls or boys, they form the notion of "masculinity" or "femininity."As this behavior develops, gender identity and ideals are simultaneously formed. Children begin to consider their behavior "natural", because they are boys or girls. Most of us usually rank ourselves without any doubt as male or female sex, but there is some confusion about how to behave to men or women, how the male or female gender identity of an individual is formed.
The table shows the psychological differences between men and women.
The fact is that gender identity and ideals do not always correspond to each other. For example, homosexuals tend to have a gender identity, but they do not experience a romantic attraction to women, which personifies the gender ideal of a man. This behavior is typical for transvestite people who at the same time wear male and female clothes - they realize their biological sex, but their behavior does not correspond to generally accepted ideals. Any emergency doctor can tell you about men who wear lingerie with lace under a three-piece suit. Finally, the phenomenon of transsexuality also indicates the lack of automatic correspondence between gender identity and ideals.
SEXUAL ROLES: "MALE PLACE" / "WOMEN'S PLACE"
We discussed the concepts of biological sex, gender identity and gender ideals - the first three components of sexual identity. The fourth component is associated with sexual roles. They correspond to the expectations of such behavior, which determines the status of men and women in society. With regard to sexual roles, biological factors do not predetermine the fate of man - it can not be said that the ability to procreate limits in all societies the destination of women's household and care for the family hearth. For example, earlier in America, pregnant women usually left work and stayed home for twenty years, often they were forever housewives. Currently, women usually take a three- or six-month leave to take care of the child, and then start working again. Although in America, such a change has only recently occurred in other countries has long been a trend.
Margaret Mead dealt a crushing blow to the belief that men and women "by nature" were created for certain roles. She wrote about this in the book "Sex and Temperament," which presents her observations of the life of three tribes in New Guinea. At the beginning of the study, Mead was convinced that there were some fundamental differences between the sexes. She took the idea that there are innate differences between men and women, therefore representatives of each gender are intended for certain roles. The received data surprised her. In each of the three tribes studied, men and women played completely different roles, sometimes directly opposite to the generally accepted stereotypes considered "natural" for each gender.