From the history of women's education in Russia in the XIX century

The history of women's education is one of the most striking, but, unfortunately, little studied pages in the history of Russian culture. The official starting point for the formation of women's education is considered May 5, 1764, when the decree of Catherine II to the Senate on the education of noble maidens in St. Petersburg at the Resurrection Monastery followed, which soon became known as the Smolny Monastery, and in documents was called the "Educative Society of Noble Maidens".The enlightenment plans of the Empress and her entourage were translated into life "to overcome the superstition of the centuries, to give the people their new education and, so to speak, a new offspring."The dream of Catherine II and I. I. Betsky to create a new breed of people was not realized. But the idea of ​​a society about the appointment of a woman changed radically. A. Nikitenko wrote that "Russia owes to Catherine the Great the understanding of the high value of women and the transformation of her from a piece of sweet meat or pie stuffed with physical delights into a thinking and noble creature into a great instrument of people's rebirth and humanization."

However, even before the establishment of the Smolny Institute, "women have studied and even taught us;they studied and taught in private boarding houses, in families, even earlier in the teremas and monasteries, "EO Likhacheva reported in the" Materials for the history of women's education in Russia( 1086 -1799) ".The author of this "respectable work" recognized that the scarcity and lack of reliability of materials relating to the 11th-12th centuries does not allow us to draw a vivid picture of the female education of this period. And yet there is reason to believe that up to the 17th century, "the education of the male and female sex went more or less hand in hand", because by education we understood literacy and reading in the divine books.

Of course, the difference in the education of men and women existed from the very beginning of the spread of education in Ancient Rus, which was determined by special purposes. Women could not be neither priests, nor scribes, nor orderly, and for this reason the number of even just literate between them should have been less. Nevertheless, "no matter how low the level of general enlightenment at that time was, then women in relation to this general enlightenment were completely in the same conditions as men. For them, there were the same ways of acquiring and expanding the knowledge that was available to the entire Russian people. "

Boys and girls learned to read from the "masters" and "masters", and the higher, by that time, education, especially from the second half of the XIV century, was concentrated in the monasteries. Women from rich families were engaged in reading in theaters: "The charter of everyday life required reading as a soul-saving feat."Occurred since the second half of the XVII century.the change in the content of education( studying the Latin language and elements of secular science: grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic) also affected women: thus, Princess Sophia learned "almost all the sciences with which West-Russian scientists came to Moscow."At the same time, for the first time, a distinction was made between male and female education: the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, founded in Moscow in 1687, in which seven free sciences was taught, was intended only for male students.

In the reign of Peter I this difference intensified: the emperor paid attention only to the formation of men. In spite of the fact that Peter I did nothing in the literal sense for women's education, all his reformatory activities strongly affected the latter. The abolition of seclusion destroyed many patriarchal customs, the encouragement of marriages with foreigners, and most importantly, Peter's love for educated people reflected on the education of women who, for his reign, made significant progress. It is clear that this was purely external, attributive education: the knowledge of etiquette, foreign languages, the ability to dance. Under Peter I there were schools where girls could also be trained, for example, in Moscow under the Lutheran church in the German settlement and in St. Petersburg at St. Peter's Church. During the reign of Peter I the decree concerning women's education at monasteries was adopted. This decree, dated January 24, 1724, ordered nuns to raise orphans of both sexes and teach them to read and write, and girls, in addition, to teach needlework."Thus, the monasteries were the only women's educational institutions, which throughout our history, before the Empress Catherine II, was mentioned in the legislative act."

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, by decree of 1754, it was prescribed to teach women "babichyu matter" in obstetric schools in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and then in provincial cities. At the same time, private boarding schools appeared, in some of them boys and girls studied together. Parents, although few, tried to give children, including girls, a good education: they taught them to foreign languages ​​and developed a taste for reading books. So, Princess ER Dashkova owned four languages, she was engaged in music, dancing, drawing, read a lot. She, of course, was an exception and for a very long time remained the only Russian woman with a European education. In the era of Catherine II was made for education in general and for women in particular incomparably more than in the old days. In the year of her death( 1796), in addition to the pupils of the Smolny Institute( with two branches: for noblemen and philistine girls), 1121 girls were trained in folk schools in different provinces."For all the time the schools existed in the capital( 1781) and in the provinces( since 1786) of all those who studied at public schools of girls are shown for all 16 years 12595".Of course, such a statement of female education and such a negligible quantitative result for a huge Russian empire testified that the government did not understand at all what "education and upbringing of a woman, this most important and most powerful force for improving the mores of family and social", as AN Strannolyubsky subsequently wrote.

In the first half of the XIX century.notable improvements in the field of women's education did not happen. Although it can be noted that, according to the example of the "Educational Society of Noble Maidens," such average female educational establishments began to emerge in other cities of the empire. Then the charters of educational institutions from November 5, 1804 and December 8, 1828 allowed the opening of women's parochial schools - educational institutions with a basic course of study. They "were established very slowly, because the consciousness in the need for women's education very late penetrated into those segments of society for which these institutions were intended."

Thus, by the middle of the XIX century.in Russia the following system of women's education has developed: parochial schools, private boarding schools, institutes and several schools that arose in some localities of the country for local funds and were guided by special provisions. These schools could not meet the needs for women's education, especially for the middle classes of the population. As V. Binshtok wrote: "Indeed, the women's institutions, which owe their existence and success to the high care of the August House, were intended for the class of noblemen, officers and officials, and not all were available to persons of these categories. Parish women's schools were not sufficient at their low rate. Finally, private boarding houses did not exist everywhere, and even where "<...>" were too expensive for most middle-aged parents. "

The history of education shows that "not the changes in educational systems entailed social reforms, social upheavals, but, on the contrary, social upheavals changed the nature and setting of upbringing."Thus, the development of capitalism in Russia affected first and foremost the life of large cities, in which the mass of employees, primarily officials, living with a salary or pensions was concentrated. These people, despite the meager means, belonged to the so-called "noble" stratum of society, which obliged them to educate their children. A columnist for the magazine "Women's Education" drew a typical picture of the life of a city official's family. So, an employee who had, for example, a son and a daughter and thought about their education, knew that a gymnasium and a university were available for the son( in terms of knowledge and price);A daughter can be identified in the institute or a private boarding school. It is very difficult to get to the daughter's institute: the number of places in them is strictly limited. A good, but often even mediocre boarding is very expensive. And you have to teach your daughter somehow in some school or just to teach reading and writing "for home use."In such a situation, the mother of a teenage daughter reasoned, the best thing is to marry: "if only the bridegroom is found!" & Lt;. .. & gt; - "yes, nowadays the grooms are up to the poor brides. And will not get married? What then? Well, my father and mother will live, and if they do not become! On the son, too, hope is bad;and look, that he is getting married, his family will have to take care of. There are relatives, yes, too - the poor. What is left?"Are we going to go to the maids?"- Do not get used to this daughter, no matter how poor, but still noble. And who will take it! They say, we do not need a noble one, what a servant of noble. .. ".

Thus, the problem of women's secondary education has clearly been identified. The solution of the problem was found when NA Vyshnegradskii( 1821-1872), a professor of pedagogy at the Main Pedagogical Institute( St. Petersburg) and a member of the Academic Committee of the Ministry of Education, presented to the Minister of Public Education AS Norov proposals for the organization of women's schools. The minister in the report to Alexander II noted: "An extensive system of public education hitherto had in mind one half of the population-the male sex. Institutions that owe their existence and success to the high care of the August House are intended for the daughters of one class of nobles and officials. The people of the middle class in the provincial and district cities are deprived of the means to give their daughters their necessary education, corresponding to their modest way of life. Meanwhile, this undoubtedly depends on the development in the masses of people's true concepts of the duties of everyone, as well as all sorts of improvements in family morals and, in general, all citizenship, to which a woman has such a powerful and irresistible influence. Therefore, the establishment of open schools for girls in provincial and uyezd towns and even large settlements would be the greatest blessing for the fatherland and, so to speak, would complete a great and harmonious system of public education, embracing the universal and special needs of all states and both sexes. "

The result of the minister's report was the High Command, which followed on March 5, 1856, that "to start thinking about the arrangement for the first time in the provincial cities of women's schools, close to the course of teaching for gymnasiums. ..".Further, the Ministry of Education enlisted the provision for women's schools of the 1st and 2nd categories, which was approved on May 30, 1858. Two years later this provision was replaced by a new one, approved on May 10, 1860. According to these documents, the women's schools of the 1st and 2nd-th categories were open educational institutions intended for children of all classes and faiths, and the 1st grade schools were supposed to approach the course of male gymnasiums( without ancient languages) at their rate, and the second grade schools - to the course of the districtschools.

Thus, by the 60-ies. XIX century.the problem of the average female education was to some extent solved, which the press reported with some pride. Thus, IT Osinin, the head of the St. Petersburg women's gymnasiums, in the article "Historical notes on the situation and education of women" stressed: "Among the events that marked the current reign of [Alexander II], undoubtedly, not the last place belongs to the discoverya number of schools for incoming girls, or female gymnasiums: without the formation of a woman, there is no national education, and without public education there is not and can not be true freedom in both the moral and civic sense of the word. "

The need for women's education increased more after the peasant reform( 1861).The abolition of serfdom, which struck "at one end with a master, others with a peasant", reflected on the fate of Russian girls from landlord families. Local nobles, who inhabited mainly central Russia, lived mainly economic interests. With the destruction of serfdom, both the efforts and the possibility of a comfortable existence have disappeared. For the daughters of such families there was no home, not even a tolerable life. It was necessary to get an education, thanks to which there was the possibility of obtaining a state seat.

Many girls from the clergy, since the destruction of his isolation, found themselves in the same position as the daughters of the families of small landowners.

Another reason for the need for the development of women's education. Russian women both by law and by custom enjoyed much greater rights than women of other European countries. At 21, the girl had the same property rights as a man. Being married, she already at the age of 17 could manage her property even independently of her husband. Having legal rights, one must be able to use them. In addition, "one must be able to understand life and all the complexity of human relations in order to fight successfully with everyday adversity," wrote later N. Beketov, chairman of the Pedagogical Council of St. Petersburg Higher Women's Courses, in an article intended to explain to society the need forfemale education. He drew attention to this phenomenon, which is quite common in our country, when men, even well-bred people, are active opponents of women's education only because "material that is so easily exploited, like a woman who knows nothing and does not understand, can slip out of their hands".Therefore, the author recommended, it is necessary to eliminate "from the society those belles ingenues who are ready to sign each commitment, even not coping with its content, because" anyway, mon cher, I after all, there I do not understand. .. "And then weeping,discord in the family, death. .. ".We can not allow families to collapse because of the naive ignorance of women. The type of woman who, according to Turgenev's Pigasov, twice twice - a stearic candle, has not yet been brought out in Russia.

Already in the 60-ies. XIX century.with all the acuteness arose the question of higher female education. Where and how graduates of gymnasiums can continue their education? Can they be admitted to universities on a par with men or do they need to create special higher educational institutions? For example, KD Ushinsky, explaining to the students of the Smolny Institute, where he was the inspector of both branches in 1859-1862, drew attention to the great appointment of women as mothers, wives, active members of society. Elena Vodovozova, a pupil of this educational institution, remembered for a lifetime her heartfelt, convincing words: "You are obliged," he said, "to imbue with the desire to gain the right to higher education, to make it the goal of your life, to breathe this desire into the hearts of your sistersand to achieve this goal until the doors of universities, academies and higher schools are opened to you as hospitably as they are to men. "

KD Ushinsky talked about the need for higher female education as early as 1861. But only in the 1869/70 academic year, almost simultaneously in St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev, the so-called "Public lectures" began to operate, where more or lesssystematic lectures were given for women in various subjects of the university course( philosophy, history, literature, natural science, etc.).This was a real breakthrough in higher female education. Evidence of the difficulties that women overcome in the struggle for swap rights is evidenced, at least, by the episode described by A. Nikitenko in his "Diary" on December 22, 1868: "To the Minister of Public Education [he was at that time DA.Tolstoy] were three ladies, as representatives of the society of St. Petersburg ladies, with a request for permission to open for them courses in the higher sciences. Under the request of four hundred signatures. The minister, they say, treated them rudely and, among other things, said: "All these four hundred ladies - four hundred rams, and half of them are recorded in the Third Department."

The "Diary" of A. V. Nikitenko does not include the names of three ladies.who came to the minister. This, apparently, was the so-called female triumvirate: AP Filosofova( 1837-1912), MV Trubnikov( 1835-1897) and NV Stasov( 1822-1895), a pioneer and activist of the women's movementin Russia.

Meanwhile, in a letter addressed to the rector of the St. Petersburg University KF Kessler, signed by four hundred women of different rank and status, they set forth the motives for women to seek access to higher education: "We hope that out of the mass of Russian women,who are convinced of the inadequacy of their education, there are many individuals ready for conscious work, and therefore opening to them the highest audiences will be the true good that will later enrich our society with many useful members and our family lifeeducated mothers and educators. "

The following were significant milestones in the history of women's higher education in Russia. In 1872, general courses were opened in Moscow for the professor of Moscow University, VI Ger'e( 1837-1919), who was not only their founder, skilful organizer, energetic administrator, but also a highly-informed leader. September 30, 1876 by analogy with the Moscow were opened women's courses in Kazan, led by a professor at the Kazan University, NV Sorokin. On September 20, 1878, the Supreme Women's Courses in St. Petersburg, which were named Bestuzhevsky, named after Professor KN Bestuzhev-Ryumin( 1829-1897), approved by the government as the head of the courses( of the three submittedcandidates, neither A. N. Beketov nor A. M. Butlerov were approved in the rank of chiefs).On October 4, 1878, similar courses were opened in Kiev, led by the famous philosopher and educator SS Gogotsky( 1813-1889), a professor at the University of St. Vladimir.

"A huge influx of listeners into open courses," the contemporary wrote, "showed that the need for higher female education is strong for us."Despite this, the state and society were more cautious about higher female education. It manifested itself even in that.that a higher educational institution for women was not called a university, but simply called courses, and students - students. Much later, in a 1909 article written on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of VO Klyuchevsky's scientific activity, VV Rozanov drew attention to this fact. He wrote: "There is no university for women" by name. There is no title, title, or signage. "But the absence of a traditional name for a higher educational institution did not in the least diminish his appointment. Words courses, the student has firmly entered the everyday life of literature and life, filled with deep meaning, absorbed a history, sometimes dramatic. Replacing them with a "patterned, impersonal, imitative" name - "women's university", "girl-student" will show only "a historical invisibility.""You do not need this. .." Rozanov concluded."We are poor in history, and we should cherish our small, special history."

For residents of St. Petersburg was a new, unusual phenomenon to see girls in the streets, running with books for courses. Some, seeing the student, smiled, others - shook their heads disapprovingly. Few knew how difficult the conditions were for the students. MK Tsebrikova, who knew their way of life, wrote: "Higher education is bought at many costly sacrifices. These damp and cold corners, where three or four listeners are packed, often one bed for three, which is used in turn;this one in the frosty frost of a rug over a coat, padded up by the wind;these dinners are in penny-masters' shops, and often sausages with stale bread and tea;these sleepless nights over paid pennies correspondence instead of rest. .. ".

Artist N. A. Yaroshenko, whom critic V. V. Stasov called "a portraitist of the younger generation", depicted one such girl. Here is what he wrote about the painting by N. A. Yaroshenko, "The Curriculum"( 1883), Gleb Uspensky: "Such girls" with a book under their armpits, "in a rug and a male round cap, one of us saw and sees every day". .. & gt;Some of us, from the "public", simply define this phenomenon by the words: "they run to the courses";others through the stump-deck add reasoning about the "women's issue";another for some reason utters the word "independence" and smiles sarcastically. In short, all of us, the "public", have the notion that they "run around", that they "go against their parents", sometimes "die not with their own death", that on the other hand, the independence is "good", that "let it go"that the "mother" is best;the appointment of a woman is a "mother", and not run for courses, that the woman's brain is small, that nothing will come of it and that again, as if "good."In short, we, the public, we talk, mumble, judge, talk, talk a lot of stereotypical clever things, a lot of original nonsense about all this modern running around, books, men's hats, disregard for parents, plaids, glasses, independence, medicine, motherhood, small brain volume,and vulgarities and in essence do not understand the main, essential thing that lies hidden in the depths of all this crushing, running around, thinking about the brain, books, rugs, glasses.

- And here the artist, choosing from this whole crowd of "running with books" the most ordinary ordinary figure, furnished with the most ordinary accessories of a simple dress, plaid, man's cap, cut hair, subtly observes and transmits to you, "spectator", "the public", Most importantly, the most important thing in all that we are" public ", chewed by their ranting;this is the main thing: purely feminine, girlish features, imbued in the picture, so to speak, the presence of a youthful, bright thought.& lt;. .. & gt;This is the most elegant, unreasoned and, moreover, the most real merging of girlish and youthful features in one person, in one figure, not feminine and not masculine, but "human thought", immediately illuminated and interpreted the hat, rug, book and turnedin a new, born, unprecedented and luminous human image. "

The review of G. Uspensky outlined the main topics around which there was a heated polemic, then fading, then flaring up with renewed vigor, over the higher female education. Many townsfolk perceived the opening and activities of the Higher Women's Courses with irony, did not believe in their continued existence. Their favorite maxim was the following: a good half of the students enrolled in courses for the sake of fashion. To which the defenders of women's education answered calmly: "Let it be: let's put it, although not half, but a significant percentage will consist of" fashionable "listeners - right, this fashion will not be from the worst modes. The names of professors who read on these courses, already experienced in university teaching, vouch for the fact that the "fashionable" listeners will not in the least affect the serious nature of the readings. "

The teaching staff of the courses was excellent. At the Bestuzhev courses the lectures were read by well-known and respected professors: on the historical grammar of the Russian language, N. P. Nekrasov, on general literature A. N. Veselovsky, on Russian history K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, on psychology M. I. Vladislavlev, onchemistry D. I. Mendeleyev, on botany A. N. Beketov. But even with such an organization of the educational process, opponents of female education found a flaw: supposedly "the professors only read lectures, and did not know who is sitting before them."Of course, KN Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who headed courses in 1878-1882, did not agree with this point of view. In an article devoted to their activities( Novoye Vremya, 1886, No. 3747), in particular, he noted that "often the professors talked with the students;some of them( family) invited them to their house and tried to have a good influence;sometimes, as if to conspire, several professors lectured to the occasion. So it was after Dostoevsky died and in other important cases. Consequently, to say that the professors did not think at all about the hearers and their moral needs, it is impossible. Of course, those who listened to VS Soloviev will not forget many of his lectures and will still preserve the seeds sown to them. In general, the treatment of people of science who seriously look at their work, even in addition to lectures aimed primarily at inspiring a serious view of the world, must necessarily have a beneficial effect. "

Opponents of higher women's education most closely linked it with the issue of women's morality. It's no secret that the "courses" on the general dialect of those years were "all the same as a home of tolerance," remarked Vladimir Rozanov. In the defense of the morality of girls studying in gymnasiums and courses, the press actively participated. Thus, the publicist F. Stully in the newspaper Golos( 1880, No. 292-293) in the article "Higher Women's Education" especially defended women's education from endless censures about women's morals. He put forward such arguments: if there were no gymnasiums, a very small number of girls would enter closed educational institutions. Most of the current schoolgirls would be in seamstresses, housekeepers, etc. And as for the morality of the seamstresses, the housekeeper, argued F. Stully, there is hardly any enemy of female gymnasiums, who would undertake to prove that it is higher than the morality of school girls. And did not the novels Paul-de-Coca, and sometimes the Marquis de Sade, doze off under the pillow under the supervision of the parents of the young ladies? F. Stully is sure that pupils of gymnasiums are sufficiently strong and independent to fight with the harsh conditions for a modern girl."The best proof of this is the higher women's courses, replenished mainly by schoolgirls."

Discussion about higher female education continued for decades. Despite the fruitful activities of the Higher Women's Courses, arguments about them did not abate. Uncovered pain for women's education is permeated by a contemporary's cry in 1886: "The question of higher female education is positively an ill-fated question in our life and literature;ill-fated precisely because he can not get in the right direction and get the right flow. .. ".

The so-called women's issue flooded the pages of the periodical. As an example, we will mention only a few: "Historical notes on the situation and education of women" I.T. Osinina, "Materials for the history of views on the issue of the upbringing and education of women" BA Pavlovich."Theory and practice of women's education" VI Gerier, "On the issue of the higher educational women's courses" V. Ostrogorsky, a number of articles under the general title "Russian woman in the XVI11 century" Vl. Mikhnevich, V. Kunitsky's articles entitled "Russian Women( Analysis of the Main Female Types in Our Literature)", "Education of a Russian Woman" V. Ya. Stoyunin, "University Science for Russian Women" M. Peskovsky, "Russian Woman in the Family andschool "of F. Petrushevsky," Results of women's education in Russia and its tasks "O. Piller," Higher education "," Twenty years of the women's issue "," Women's issue in German and Scandinavian countries "M. K. Tsebrikova and many others. This problem was also relevant for fiction. In Tolstoy she dared in the Kreutzer Sonata and Anna Karenina.

Each author defended his own point of view on matters of the woman's destination, her role as mother, wife, hostess, place in society, education, professional activity, legal rights. Polar judgments expressed in publications led to the fact that the problem continued to be not only relevant but also controversial. At the end of XIX century.it was as sharp, unresolved as it was in the 1960s. To which the proof is a vicious epigram of Vl. Soloviev, dated 1897:

Especially the heated debate between supporters and opponents of the education of women evoked the thesis about her destiny to be a mother.wife, mistress of the house. Thus, the magazine "The Church-Public Herald", which was the defender of female education, in the article "The Contemporary Role of the Russian Woman in the Upbringing"( 1882. N ° 80, 83 and 87) analyzed the institution of the Russian family in different strata of society and characterized the role of the Russianmothers as educators of their children. The author of the publication came to the conclusion that education in no way diminished the role of a woman mother, since even before the 60s of the nineteenth century,our society did not have the formed type of "mother of the family" in the best and highest meaning of the word, that is, a woman who firmly stood guard over her family, fully understood her rights and responsibilities towards children and would be imbued with feelings, concepts andinterests of the whole Russian nation. "The mother-peasant woman, the petty bourgeois, the merchant woman, the mother in the family of the village priest were subjected to the evaluation. Nobody, according to the author's views, did not meet the requirements. The most attractive type of mother of the family appeared in the family of an official, where the mother of the family is a graduate of a female gymnasium or a private educational institution corresponding to her. Here, from the point of view of the author, "domination is not instincts, but sensible views and judgments, which, of course, are very beneficial for the mental growth of children."But the fragility of religious beliefs and a superficial view of morality did not allow the author to call the mother of such a family ideal. In the aristocratic house, the role of the mother is also far from ideal. Unfortunately, the author ascertained, the state of the family in all layers of Russian society is unsatisfactory, as a result of which the high role of mother-educator of her children has not yet been understood and understood by the Russian woman.

A well-known literary critic and public figure O. Miller spoke about the beneficial influence of education on family life and, in particular, on the role of mother, speaking at the Bestuzhev courses. With his characteristic pathos, he declared: "The woman's higher education should be restored to that halo not only of the mother, but also of the spiritual motherhood, which can never be replaced by any art of the most brilliant teacher!"In O. Miller's opinion, "for a family in our educated society to reach the full height of its educational value, a woman should be given the right to education".

SM Soloviev, a famous historian, professor at the Moscow University, at the opening of the Higher Women's Courses in Moscow, assessed the role and purpose of women as follows: "An indispensable and honorary member of society, a mother and educator of citizens, a woman should not be deaf and mute in society, indifferent and alien to the issues that occupy it. "But worst of all there is such situation of the woman when she tries to participate in questions, not knowing their essence, when she is fond of the first loud phrase, repeats another's words, not having possibility to check up their truth. A woman, according to SM Soloviev, should have self-esteem. Only such a woman, meeting "with every phenomenon, tries to study it, to penetrate into its essence;A new word will not entice it, it will not wipe out its consciousness;without passion, without anger and premature sympathy, she will listen to him and will take up the test;she will be shown authority;she will turn to other authorities, listen to other opinions. "A woman who is firm in her ideas is very valuable for society, because she will not be an easy prey for people who seek to enslave their fellow countrymen by imposing other people's beliefs. When a woman demonstrates "firmness of convictions, a broad, multilateral view, the ability to verify someone else's opinion," then society will "grow up, get stronger, get the opportunity for proper development."Raising self-esteem in a woman is also important because she is the mother and first mentor of children, and for society it is especially significant that "young generations are brought up under the impression of calm greatness that dominates in the image of the mother."And vice versa: "Woe to society, where instead of this image of peaceful greatness young generations meet the image of a woman, reeling in all directions, with a demented consciousness," stunned by different opinions, unable to understand and appreciate them, "the moral slave of everyone whoOnly he will want to master easy prey;grief to the society in which the woman is in such a humiliating position! ".In order for a woman not to be in this position, the people of science, said in conclusion SM Soloviev, are obliged to "offer a course of higher education, for his absence, as was said, leads to sad phenomena."

The idea that education is necessary for a woman first of all precisely because she is a mother was once again emphasized by the doctor E. L. Pokrovsky. He is the author of the extensive work "Physical education of children from different peoples, mainly Russia"( Izvestiya Imperial Society of Naturalists, Anthropology and Ethnography, Proceedings of the Anthropological Department, Vol. I-III), which collected many factshow children are disfigured and dying because of the ignorant care of their mothers not only from the lower, but also from the middle and upper classes of society. According to the statistics, about 70% of young people suffer from ailments that result from poor care in childhood. A similar picture is observed in families belonging to the upper strata of society. E. L. Pokrovsky wondered: Where is the salvation? And he answered: "The saving way out of this situation is one: it is the light of science, the light of knowledge and enlightenment, widely and well applied."

As far as the issue of women's education was really polemical and relevant, the survey of domestic journals, made by the correspondent of "Women's Education", testifies. In it, in particular, it was stressed: "Efforts of a certain part of the press to prove the uselessness and even malignancy of the higher women's education forced the" Herald of Europe "," Northern Herald "," Russian Thought "and some other publications to defend this education. Many provincial newspapers fervently supported the capital's stamp, and thus, once again, the public sympathy for resolving the issue of women's education was proved - an issue that, by virtue of our identity, came after the necessity and practical feasibility of this education was proved byus by deed, that is, the existence of both female gymnasiums and higher women's courses. "

The discussion about women's education revealed such problems, which, as a rule, they tried not to say aloud. This is primarily the relationship of spouses. Foes of female education believed that secondary, and especially higher education of women would have a negative impact on the family. In another way, the well-known pedagogue and writer V. Ostrogorsky looked at this problem. In his article "Wives and Husbands( A Few Words About Family Life)," he noted that marriage, which used to be a mere commercial transaction, did not cease to be a "marriage of progress and a woman's issue."Change the attitude to marriage can, in the author's opinion, raise the intellectual level of society, requiring the intellectual equality of husband and wife. Analyzing typical Russian families represented, in his terminology, by exemplary and evil husbands, exemplary and evil wives, V. Ostrogorsky nevertheless did not find examples of respectable families. Even those of them, where the husband and wife can be called exemplary, are far from perfect, for "By cold, narrow petty-bourgeois egoism blows from such families, in which not only you will not hear a living word, a heated argument, but often you will meet the most conservative rebuff to any attempt to withdrawthis family into a world of some kind of common interests. "It is well known how a powerful factor in the mental and moral life of a society is a woman, and weaken the strength of this factor, limiting the intellectual development of women by all possible means - a crude and dangerous delusion, the author concluded. On the contrary, the education received by a woman, her intellectual development will significantly affect her personal life, the creation of a reasonable, enviable family, so necessary for every state. For an educated woman, "marriage will cease to be an accident, a lottery, in which the happiness of the brothers and the fate of entire generations is thoughtlessly played out."The author is sure that women should be given wide opportunities for education and professional growth, "but still one of the greatest professions, in all states, and the most common, will be one: - to be a force in the family that supports the husband morally, elevates him, and the power that creates new spirits in spirit. "

We can not ignore a whole series of questions asked by the publicist of the second half of the 19th century, in which one feels personal interest, emotion and a great desire to improve the situation of the Russian family: "Mourning for the decline of the parental authority, the disintegration of the family is often heard;but where is the main reason for all this, if not ignorance, especially women's? Is not the authority of the mother weakened when a second-grade schoolgirl overtakes her in knowledge, when a mother can not really answer the questions of a ten- or twelve-year-old child with respect to the elementary phenomena of nature? Does not the family break up when the best spiritual aspirations of the husband do not find an appropriate response in the mind of the wife? How can such a family be strong? "

Thus, the issue of women's education is, first of all, the issue of preserving the family, the people and the state.

It is impossible to overestimate the educational impact of an educated, active mother's perception of life on their children. A good example of this situation was given by V. V. Rozanov in the essay "Anna Pavlovna Filosofova."The plot lines of the future publication led the author to the women's club that operated in St. Petersburg, where he met with the secretary of the club - a rich, educated widow who has a son-schoolboy. VV Rozanov noticed that this woman loves her work very much, holds every Sunday at the club."And the son does not depart from it," gut the same, "and she did not cease to be a family man, and the son admires that his mother needs everyone, everyone asks her, she is treated, she helps everyone. The son admires the fact that his mother is a useful man-he is proud of this and this good filial pride is brought up more than if the mother was forever knitting a stocking, sitting with him vis-a-vis, in a cap on the model of a German picture. "

Thus, adherents of women's education did not deny the main purpose of women - to be a mother, wife, mistress of the house. But the educational power of the mother, they believed, its beneficial effects on children will increase if it is educated. The husband will find in the wife not only the interlocutor with whom it is possible to discuss all modern problems of a society, but also the friend if she is formed and continues to be engaged in self-education. Such a woman will always be the soul of the family. The philistine gradually agreed with the opinion of V. V. Rozanov that "the woman is the most educated, which, after all, can be both rude and tough, recycles into the highest, most elegant and together the most powerful educational light."

So, the heated controversy that lasted almost half a century ended with an agreement on the need for women's education. On the agenda was another, no less burning, issue of its content.

The content of the female education

In 1890, in the newly established and immediately become one of the authoritative domestic pedagogical publications - the magazine "Russian School" - was published an article by the famous philosopher and teacher NG Debolsky "On Women's Education", the main task of which- determine the content of women's education. Promptly, the author's proposals were thoroughly and reasonably challenged in the press by AN Strannolyubsky, a prominent figure in the field of women's education, who spoke with the article "Concerning One Plan for Women's Education."

Both authors are very famous figures of Russian education in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. But in the Soviet period of our history, their activities, pedagogical heritage were not studied even in a professional environment. NG Debolsky( 1842-1918), an idealist philosopher, is nevertheless referred to as the "Soviet encyclopaedic dictionary"( M., 1990), since "he translated into Russian.yaz."The Science of Logic" by Hegel "(part 1-2, 1916)"( p. 369).Dialectics of G. Hegel, according to VI Lenin, was one of the three sources and components of Marxism. AN Strannolyubsky same( 1839-1903) Soviet teachers was represented only one side of his multifaceted activity, the methodologist of mathematics.

It is impossible to assess the views of an author without knowing anything about his personality, education, interests.

The philosopher and psychologist NN Lange, a professor at the Novorossiysk University, devoted an extensive work to the analysis of creativity of N. G. Debolsky, in which he examined in detail his philosophy of phenomenal formalism. In his introduction to the article, N. Lange noted with regret that the activity of the philosopher, "which has been going on for more than thirty years and which resulted in a whole series of independent treatises, has not only remained until now almost unknown to the reading public, but never( as far as we know)was not the subject of a serious critical evaluation. This is all the more sad and unfair that anyone who seriously and attentively studies the works of N. G. Debolsky( and because of the abundance of the content of their thoughts they require just such a study), can not but recognize them as very thoughtful, serious and conscientious experiments of philosophical thinking".

B. V. Yakovenko in the History of Russian Philosophy, the best of his works published in Prague in Czech in 1938, spoke of N.D. Debolsky as follows: "His [Debolsky], apparently, should be recognized as the mosttalented, most scrupulous and most principled Russian thinkerXIX. "This assessment is probably not devoid of subjectivity, since the opinion of another major philosopher sounds different. AF Losev wrote: "Himself, N. G. Debolsky & lt;. .. & gt;in general had a rather muddled worldview, including elements of positivism, Hegelianism and Platonism "[17, 59-60].However, immediately AF Losev stated that the book of G. G. Debolsky "On the Highest Good, or On the Supreme Purpose of Moral Activity"( St. Petersburg, 1886) is "one of the most important works criticizing the doctoral thesis of Vl. Solovyov. "The judgments of AF Losev on NG Debolsky are ambiguous: he took criticism of IG Debol'skii's doctoral dissertation Vl. Solovyov refuted it. And yet the thinker concluded: "Anyway, the study of the work of N. G. Debolsky is very useful for clarifying both the historical and the theoretical significance of the doctoral dissertation of Vl. Solovyov. "

VV Zenkovsky in the "History of Russian Philosophy" in a chapter devoted to the later Hegelians, reasoning about the philosophical interests of the translator G. Hegel summarized as follows: "Philosophical analysis in Debolsky shows the undoubted subtlety and thoroughness of his talent;it is also certain that he stood in the way of creating his own system, the general outlines of which( under the name of "phenomenal formalism") he gave. But from the general sketch, drawn very briefly, before the construction of a complete system, Debolsky never came. "

In the work of N. G. Debolsky, philosophy was organically combined with pedagogical research. Pedagogy, in his understanding, is an applied philosophy, as evidenced, for example, by his works such as: "A Review of Russian Translated Philosophical Works Associated with Pedagogy Problems";"The philosophical foundations of moral education," etc. N. G. Debolsky was not only a theoretical pedagogue, his official activity was primarily pedagogical. After studying at the Mining Institute and obtaining a Ph. D. in science from the St. Petersburg University, he took up the post of tutor in the 1 st St. Petersburg Military Gymnasium. Then he was the inspector of the schools of the Imperial Technical Society. From 1880 to June 1917, N.Debolsky held various posts in the Ministry of Public Education, but did not stop teaching: he taught pedagogy at the women's gymnasium of Princess A.L. Obolenskaya, where she was the chairman of the Pedagogical Council for the last three years1880-1896).In the St. Petersburg Theological Academy he read metaphysics, logic and psychology( 1882-1887), and in the late 80's.taught pedagogy at St. Petersburg higher pedagogical courses. His practical pedagogical activity, as well as numerous publications on philosophical and pedagogical problems, on issues of education and training in the "Pedagogical Collection", "The Family and the School," "The Journal of the Ministry of Public Education" and other periodicals, allowed M. I. Demkov,known historian of pedagogy, to assert: "Undoubtedly, NG Debolsky is an outstanding modern pedagogical writer, with a whole philosophical outlook."

AN Strannolyubsky, the main opponent of NGDebolsky in matters of the content of women's education, contemporaries called not only one "of the most educated and noblest representatives of a brilliant galaxy of educators of the 60s." But also a patriarch between teachers: beginning to teach in1860 geography and mathematics in Vasileostrovskaya free school, "he remained faithful once elected profession and died in his post as a teacher, having worked on it for more than 40 years."Education AN Strannolyubsky received in the Marine Corps, where later( 1867-1894) taught mathematics to future naval officers. He also taught at private women's gymnasiums, lectured in higher mathematics at the Women's Pedagogical Courses, where for some time he was the inspector of courses.

AN Strannolyubsky was a passionate champion of higher women's education. In the opinion of PF Kapterev, "he is reasonable and serious & lt;. .. & gt;became a convinced friend of women and, together, an energetic and courageous fighter for higher female education. "He took an active part in the drafting of the Higher Women's Courses, was one of their founders, for 14 years was the secretary of the society for raising funds to the Higher Women's Courses.

With his passionate, based on statistical evidence, articles and speeches published in the magazines "Women's Education", "Education", "Russian School", AN Strannolyubsky attracted the attention of society and the state to the problems of public education, including women's,as its important component. He, in word and deed, until the end of his life helped talented and talented Russian women to get a higher education. The most gifted student was Sonia Korvin-Krukovskaya, the future famous mathematician Sofya Vasilyevna Kovalevskaya( 1850-1891).More information about the activities of the teacher can be found in our article.

Thus, both NG Debolsky and AN Strannolyubsky are worthy figures of Russian education, the authors of pedagogical writings, which did not lose their relevance in the 21st century, and who knew the female audience well. However, their views on the objectives, goals and content of women's education are diametrically opposed.

Beginning with the publication of PGDebolsky's essay "On Women's Education," the editors wrote in a note that she does not share the ultimate conclusions of the venerable author, but nevertheless prints the article "firstly, in view of the extreme disagreement on the question of the setting up of a femaleeducation in general and in particular higher education for women, which is still an open question, and secondly, in view of the boldness of the views and the originality of the statement of this question in the proposed article, which belongs, moreover, to a person who is intimately acquainted withOrganization of our women's education not only in theory, but also in practice. "

To answer the question of what kind of female education should be, in the opinion of N. G.Debolsky, it is necessary to find out the natural( physical and spiritual) and social relations of the male and female types, and also to determine the requirements "which any general education must satisfy".

Comparative characteristics of physical and spiritual characteristics of men and women allowed the author to recognize that "both the physical and spiritual types of both sexes must be recognized as different."But changes in people's living conditions also affect their natural characteristics. As life becomes safer and more comfortable, men no longer need the same courage and courage, and women, being less vulnerable to violence and resentment, become bolder and more confident in their abilities. Consequently, "as civilization progresses, a man becomes more feminine to a certain extent, and a woman is more courageous. Parallel to this moral equating of the properties of both sexes, the mental equating is also performed, "concluded G. G. Debolsky. The spread of enlightenment also leads men to the average level of the mind, that is, makes them mentally more and more like women. The development of society leads to the fact that the middle mind is also in demand in mental activity. And this means that women also get more opportunities to engage in science, medicine, technology, teaching, writing art, and, the author emphasized, "they often even surpass men in those branches of these occupations in which success depends mainly on accuracy, fineobservance and conscientiousness. "

At the same time, one should not forget about the natural purpose of a woman - to be the mother and educator of her children. NGDebolsky stressed that a woman, previously a man reaching maturity and being weaker by his strength, can not experience adolescent and adolescent mental stress without harm to his own health and to the health of his future children. Therefore, he concluded, "the more educated the society becomes and the more serious the training course for the existing level of education becomes, the more dangerous for women and for future children is the arrangement of their training in the male type;the more it is necessary as carefully as possible to think about a special plan for women's education. "

The normal fate of any woman, even a highly educated, married life. The birth and upbringing of children require good health from her, so spending it on acquiring knowledge is pointless. Most specialties requiring higher education have nothing to do with raising children in infancy. Hence, the desire of women to higher education, in the author's opinion, will not only not help mothers in the initial education of children, but, on the contrary, will even prevent them from getting ready to fulfill this duty.

NG Debolsky objected to those women's educators who believed that several years spent by a woman to purchase an education would not become an obstacle to the fulfillment of her natural purpose. This state of affairs, in his opinion, is a small evil, and the big one consists in the fact that "as if a woman mathematician or a woman doctor is a higher being than a woman who is exclusively devoted to the interests and concerns of family life."People, leading agitation for women's higher education, do not foresee all life's vicissitudes. And it also happens that a young woman who has received higher education marries, "and if the circumstances of her life - as it happens in most cases - develop in such a way that it becomes difficult or even impossible for her to pursue the specialty for which she was preparing, then a large amount of mental health and strength of character is required on her part to reconcile herself to her position and not consider her life to be spoiled. It is in this circumstance that the danger lies in the said agitation for true femininity. "True femininity, the author believed, "consists in the normal development of the properties of women as such, as creatures with a special, namely, belonging to him, natural and social purpose".Therefore, "the equivalence, through education, of the male and female types does not at all accord with the proper solicitude of the modern, well-organized society for the physical and spiritual well-being of the younger generations."Modern women are no longer brought up in the former isolation. To the extent that they "can participate in the spiritual productivity of society, they must be given the opportunity to do so. But then, and most importantly, they must be educated and educated as future wives and mothers, and no knowledge of mathematics or medicine will fill the lack of such education and education, "the author emphasized once again.

So, women, having their own special life task, must have their own special education plan.

Next, the author examined the thesis on the specifics and content of general education, bearing in mind also the answer to the question "whether his plan can really be outlined regardless of the consideration of the future specialty of students".

NG Debolsky rightly stressed that "under the educational impact on the pet one should understand such that is directed to the challenge in it of the desire to give themselves a conscious account both in their actions and in the phenomena of the environment and the situation. To be educated is to understand the bases of what you do yourself and what you notice around you. Talking, working, enjoying art can also be an uneducated and educated person;but the latter differs from the former in that it understands the rules of the speech used by it, the scientific foundations of the work it performs, the aesthetic principles by which the beauty of the artistic work is judged. "In order for the training course to be educational, that is, what has been learned is firmly preserved and found a real application for itself, it must be linked by incentives of interest and benefit.

Thus, the arguments of NG Debolsky were reduced to three theses:

"1) education is that part of education that develops in the pet consciousness of the bases of its activity;

2) occurring through mental work, education consists in an organic connection with all other aspects of the spiritual life of the pet;

3) Therefore, the teaching becomes character educational only if it is associated with the life of the pet through interest and benefit. "

Teachings, quite rightly stressed the author, then it will be educational, when it will guide the student to the life that comes to him.

Every person in life carries out activities of three genera. This, first, the fulfillment of state, ecclesiastical, economic, family functions, the realization of which requires the ability to read, write, count, etc. Secondly, every graduate of a secondary school is a future specialist( of course, preparation for a profession is the task of vocational education, but general education provides the basis without which it is not only impossible to start a special education, but also to make a choice).Finally, third, in the life of every person there is leisure, the conduct of which, without the assistance of education, can be of a low and harmful nature.

The education required to carry out activities assigned to the first group is important for the specialist. This is what constitutes the "compulsory part for all, embraces those things that must be studied by all pupils of the general education school."That is why, the author reasoned, they should be brought to a "minimum, embrace only what is useful for every social situation and for any profession."IG Debolsky explained his view of the minimum selection of subjects as follows: "if a certain part of the general education course is proclaimed compulsory for all, then the only justification for it is its utility for all, its applicability to the life of all, and not some, at least thesethere were many. "Consequently, general education includes the generally minimum minimum of information required for each.

Concerning the second part of the general education course, G.Debolsky emphasized, one usually thinks: what kind of specialty the student will select later, it is impossible to solve in advance. Therefore, he has to learn a lot. Such a decision, as a rule, is not fruitful, since most graduates of a gymnasium still do not know what they are most inclined to and capable of, while their admission to a higher educational institution is determined by pure chance. The reason for this situation lies in the following: a love for a science or a circle of sciences manifests itself in a closer acquaintance with them, and it is difficult to do this to a grammar-school student, since compulsory study of all subjects does not allow him to concentrate on any one occupation. Hence, the author concluded, one can not justify the existing composition of the general education course by the need to prepare the student for the opportunity to study any specialty afterwards.

NG Debolsky offered his own variant of vocational training: all subjects that are needed by future specialists, to study optional. With five detailed arguments, he substantiated his position. First, a much larger number of students will graduate from high school, since those of them for which a certain difficulty is represented by either philological sciences or mathematical sciences, will not be excluded from it. Secondly, "the benefits for the health of students" will be obtained, since the optional nature of the classes makes it possible to significantly reduce the number of teaching hours and use the leisure time for physical exercises. Thirdly, "there will be a gain in the self-activity of the mind," since by choosing certain subjects for study, the student will not passively and languidly study them. The teacher, who previously worked with the whole class, will begin to teach those students who voluntarily engage in the subject, from this lesson will get a lively character and will help to open up the mental powers of the students. Fourthly, there will be a consistency in the development of the soul, that is, a young man will gradually become accustomed to the independent conduct of his studies. Only by choosing any objects on their own, the student "becomes mature to the choice of one or another specialty."Finally, fifthly, "there will be a tremendous benefit in the thoroughness of preparation for the future specialty."The author suggested more rigorous assessment of students' knowledge of the subject studied optional.

As for the subjects that are necessary for a person for entertainment and leisure, then the general education course should include those of them "whose study elevates and ennobles the spirit, distracts him from low habits, promotes the spiritual and physical health of the pet, finally informs himuseful skills ".But such studies, in the author's opinion, are not necessary.

Therefore, the general education course "must embrace itself:

1) part that is mandatory for everyone and constitutes the so-called general educational minimum;

2) the part that is mandatory only for those who are preparing for a certain kind of specialty, and

3) the part is optional, but studied for a completely free attraction. "

So, the general minimum includes: "In addition to the Law of God, the native language, with its literature, arithmetic and geography and history, shortened to the limit, & lt;. .. & gt;it is desirable to attach to them the beginnings of studying the Latin language, algebra and geometry and science. "The subjects needed to prepare for future specialties are determined by the requirements of the profession itself. Thus, future philologists and theologians study history and ancient languages, future lawyers - history and Latin, future engineers - mathematics and physics, etc. Finally, subjects from the third part of the general education course are: drawing, music, riding, learning crafts, gardening, etc.

Then NGDebolsky went on to determine the scope and content of general education for women's educational institutions, emphasizing once again that he was guided first and foremost by the difference in the natural and social purpose of men and women."A normal profession for a woman is only one - a wife, mother and the original educator of her children. Therefore, in the normal plan of general female education, there is no difference between the two parts mentioned, but the general educational minimum coincides with the preparation for the future specialty.

Thus, instead of the three parts, the women's general education course should have only two:

1) the educational part necessary for every woman, and

2) an optional part, studied for entertainment. "

Men's professions, according to NG Debolsky, are, as a rule, artificial, "that is, they rely on acquired knowledge and skills;while the normal female profession rests on innate inclinations and instincts. "And this means that education should not upset the health of the future mother and should not "violate the integrity of her instinctive attachment to her child and the family that feeds and protects him."The educated wife and mother "differs from the uneducated not by the fact that the former is able, and the second is not able to produce and love children, but because the latter serves only the physical, the first, at the same time, spiritual center of family life."But for the development in a woman of the properties of spiritual receptivity is not required, in the author's opinion, a special course for the study of the arts.

Thus, "the general educational women's course is, together, and a course that specially prepares women for their normal profession, and in no, beyond it, a higher specialty course does not appear to be needed. In short, in the education of women, not only the general educational minimum coincides with the preparation for the future specialty, but this preparation is not divided into two parts, as for men, but represents one whole, "the author emphasized.

General educational women's course includes, besides those subjects.that entering the minimum of the general educational male course, those additions that serve to develop a broad spiritual sensitivity. This is primarily reading and talking. The wife and mother should be able to conduct serious sensible conversations with the husband and children, especially with the growing up. The existing women's general education course, according to the author, is designed to acquire knowledge, and not to excite spiritual sensitivity to the sublime and beautiful. This goal can be implemented if, after the end of the junior classes, the general education course will be concentrated mainly on literature and history. But the purpose of studying these subjects is not "to fill the pupils' heads with a mass of names and chronological data," but that "they themselves read the more outstanding and accessible literary and historical works, expounded them verbally and in writing and analyzedteacher ".Mathematics and foreign languages ​​in the upper grades are optional subjects, the study of geography must end in the first four classes. N.Debolsky explained his position on mathematics as follows: "if in the male general education course most of what is now taught from algebra and geometry, as well as the whole of trigonometry.should be preserved only for future professionals of those professions that are based on the knowledge of exact sciences, then the less reason to do this part of the training course is mandatory for girls. "Mathematical knowledge is needed in the study of physics and cosmography. But these subjects, the author concluded, referring to experience, "for the vast majority of students there is a waste of time and energy."With the generally available and interesting information about the main physical phenomena and celestial bodies, it is possible to acquaint students in elementary grades in the elementary course of natural science and geography. It is necessary to exclude foreign languages ​​from the obligatory course because it is not possible for the gymnasium to be able to teach the pupils so proficient in a foreign language to freely read the literature on it. Therefore, those who wish can study foreign literature in the original, and it is obligatory to study foreign translations.

A compulsory female course in the upper grades should include human anatomy and physiology with generally available information on hygiene, as well as psychology with pedagogical instructions based on it. Pedagogy "can be taught or dogmatically, as a series of known councils and rules, or historically, as a consistent introduction to the development of pedagogical views and theories."However, the author rejected the first aspect of the study because it would be a simple collection of the views of the teacher of pedagogy, "which is somewhat strange to make compulsory for pupils."The study of the history of pedagogy "presupposes such a historical and philosophical preparation, which for the girls from 16 to 18 years is unthinkable."On the other hand, practical pedagogical instructions, which have a psychological basis and at the same time are appropriate for a given age and the development of pupils, it is desirable to relate to the course of psychology. And if time permits, it will not be superfluous to read the texts of pedagogical content and analyze what was read in the class.

This should be the composition of the mandatory part of the normal general education course of the women's educational institution. To facultative occupations PGDebolsky attributed: mathematics, natural sciences, foreign languages ​​and their literature, drawing, music, manual labor. It also includes teaching and educational practice with youngsters in the form of supervision of them in their spare time, assisting them in their studies, replacing missing teachers and GP.But these lessons are not compulsory.

NG Debolsky also pointed to the mandatory conditions for the functioning of the proposed plan. First: a women's educational institution should not provide students with any special pedagogical rights. The author explained the reasons for this condition. Students who graduated from the women's progymnasium of the Ministry of Education after six months of practice have the right to take the post of primary school teacher, and those who graduated from the gymnasium receive this right unconditionally. To teach in the junior classes of secondary women's educational institutions, it is necessary to finish the course of the pedagogical( VIII) class, since this class is part of the gymnasium and without it the training is considered as unfinished, then, naturally, all gymnasium students study in this class. In the women's gymnasiums departments of the Empress Maria, the confusion of general educational and professional goals is even closer: the students are entitled to teaching in secondary schools immediately after the end of the seven-year course. Such overproduction of teachers leads to the fact that they can envy domestic servants in respect of material security. To become a rural teacher is possible only because of extreme poverty or from self-sacrifice: life conditions are so hard. Thus, the rights received by graduates of women's gymnasiums make the life of their owners almost powerless. If we allow the union of the outlined plan of women's education with the rights granted to the graduates, then changes in the structure of women's education will not happen: what is directly useful for future teaching will prevail over those activities that are valuable for elevating and spiritualizing family life.

Second condition: there should not be a public or public way to encourage girls who do not have the means to get an education. Such assistance is necessary only when the state or society needs specialists. But women's education does not set such a goal before themselves. In addition, "the harm that arises from the artificial attraction of young people in the gymnasium and higher educational establishments - the emergence and multiplication of the mental proletariat - becomes more complicated, with the same encouragement extended to the women's general education schools, with new harm."It is undesirable to unite girls from different social strata in one gymnasium. This circumstance, G.Debolsky considered, will have a bad influence on their morality: the habits of comparing oneself with others will give rise to envy, self-abuse, slander, gossip, etc.vices.

It is difficult to fulfill these conditions in state educational institutions, therefore, women's educational institutions should be arranged only for private individuals. The state needs to strengthen supervision over them.

The outlined plan for a normal female education has exceptions and additions. Firstly, not all women marry, but among married people there are those who have to earn their living. Therefore, "the question inevitably arises of the study of women by some grain business."Secondly, every woman has the right to develop her special individual gifts. And, finally, third, there are professions, in involving women to which the state itself is interested.

For students "from an educated class whose abilities, as well as their property or social status, are such that they are forced to attach themselves to life in more rapid and easy ways," according to NGDebolsky, secondary vocational schools should be established. In them it is expedient, except for special ones, to arrange general or preparatory classes, the purpose of which is to provide preliminary general education. Otherwise there will be too little contingent of pupils or the level of their initial knowledge will be completely inadequate. The author found the organization of general educational institutions that would prepare for entering various secondary vocational schools inexpedient, since each profession requires its own general education.

There should also be no mixing of general education and professional courses in women's education. The correct organization of women's vocational education "is hampered by the comparatively limited number of professions available to a woman according to the characteristics of her gender."Nevertheless, in secondary vocational schools, it is possible to "study a considerable number of specialties: music, singing, drawing, painting and modeling with various applications, feldsher and midwifery, office and business, and preparation for some small clans of state and public service".

The inconsistency of the attitude of N. G. Debolsky to the higher female education was expressed in the following phrase: "Without doubt, it is undesirable that the doctrine distract the woman from her natural and public purpose;but it is equally undesirable that she should be distracted from him by excessive entertainment, excessive enthusiasm for easy fiction, illnesses caused by an infatuation with an inexpedient choice of food and clothing. "He also stressed that there should not be a state ban on higher women's education, because nothing will be achieved by categorical measures. If women's striving for higher education is vigorous, they "will continue to learn from books, in private circles, from unofficial teachers, and this doctrine, hidden from control, will of course be worse in quality and more dangerous in direction than the teaching in explicit and well-controlled schools".NGDebolsky reassured himself and his supporters of his views by the fact that "the desire of women to acquire higher education becomes harmful only when it is as if rampant between intelligent women, when in the whole mass they gain the dominance of the belief in the advantage of studying chemistry or medicinebefore the duties of family life. "If the desire for higher education is a consequence of the conditions of life and individual inclination, then nothing can be said against this. Under the "conditions of life", G.Debolsky understood the life of unmarried women, and by "individual inclinations" they meant energetic women, possessing strong health and character, able to fulfill the duties of wife and mother and engage in an extraneous work.

The state should not let the organization of higher women's education run its course. It has the right to allow or not allow women a particular type of professional activity, and also to monitor "that higher special education does not become too easily accessible to the entire mass of educated women to the detriment of both themselves and their families."For example, a legal profession should be completely closed to women. On the contrary, there is no reason to deny them medical studies or to obstruct those women who, having attained higher academic degrees, can teach in higher education. The author is not against women getting higher education in men's educational institutions. High tuition fees and the need to withstand an equal entrance examination with men will significantly reduce the number of women wishing to pursue higher education. To arrange special women's higher educational institutions means, in the opinion of N. G.Debolsky, to be "hotbeds of the women's intelligent proletariat and centers of undesirable for the society agitation in favor of equal rights for women and men."The author advocated only such educational institutions for women, in which the preparation for the specialty of teachers and educators is given, as most appropriate to their natural purpose.

NG Debolsky rightly stressed that it is highly desirable that among the teachers of primary schools there were both men and women."A male teacher has more of a spirit of initiative, more energy in maintaining school discipline, more ability to become a close and influential member of a local society;but the teacher is distinguished by a large decrease in contentment with scant content, less desire to change her position, more accurate in performance, although minor but very important requirements of school routine, great restraint, softness and love for cleanliness and order, greater ability to obey the dictates of higher authorities andmore stability in decent and moral behavior. "

NG Debolsky never tired of repeating that general educational and professional tasks should not be solved in one educational institution, especially when it comes to the training of teachers: the quality of their training should be very high. Even in primary schools, women who have completed the course in teachers' seminaries should teach."In women's schools, the program of which exceeds the rate of primary schools, only persons who have received higher pedagogical education in specially organized government educational institutions should be allowed to teach and educate."Seeing that he contradicts himself( previously he recommended opening only private educational institutions for women), the author explained his idea about state pedagogical institutions: "It would be inconvenient to give this case to a private initiative for the reason that for the educational and upbringing part of the schoolsHowever, it is more difficult to have proper supervision; in the meantime, establishments preparing teachers and educators should be arranged as impeccably and culturally as possible and in relation to the religious and moral communicated to them by their pupilsThe direction. Moreover, the vast majority of pupils of such institutions will be from families of poor people, who find it difficult or even impossible to pay high dues for the teaching and education of daughters;Meanwhile, if you require a high degree of improvement of these institutions, their cost will be high. "In this case, the author again contradicts himself: girls from poor families need financial assistance from the state.

Higher pedagogical institutes for women should include two courses: prep( general education) and special. The future teachers and educators should first of all be irreproachably educated themselves. Such education girls can get in special boarding schools, from which in the future they can go immediately to a special course in the Pedagogical Institute, where, in addition to verbal and exact sciences in the amount necessary for the teacher, subjects of special pedagogical preparation should be studied. Other women's educational institutions should not be given the right to train teachers and educators. Then the issue of overproduction of teachers will be resolved.

This is the view of N. G. Debolsky on the goals, objectives and content of secondary and higher female education.

The reasons that prompted AI Strannolyubsky to act as an opponent of Nikolai G. Debolsky were that the article by Nikolai Grigorievich "compiled very thoroughly and with detailed motivation of the conclusions can deceive very many."In addition, "and this is all the worse, it can give people, unfriendly or passionately related to the issue of women's education and usually differ at the same time, profound ignorance in the scientific and pedagogical respect, an easy opportunity to set their wild demands and aspirations in appearance and evenas if by serious and scientific arguments. "

The general educational minimum offered by N.D.Debolsky, from the point of view of AN Strannolyubsky, is "an elementary, lower level of general education, a simple, so-called elementary school".The educational system of N.D.Debolsky "is presented in this form: elementary general education, limited to the course of primary school and then directly special education, first prepared, and then present. Such a system immediately strikes with its sharp contradiction with established basic pedagogical concepts and is, in effect, a denial of that stage of general education, which in all cultural countries is the task of the so-called "secondary general school," which is everywhere the main and most important organ of general education. "

NG Debolsky, by his own admission, is an opponent of crude empiricism: "But what, if not the grossest empiricism, is the author's own method of determining the content of the" general minimum "as a remnant from the separation from the course of gymnasiums and real schools of subjectsthe student should not "remember all life".Is it possible that the general educational value of educational subjects can be estimated by such a criterion, "A. Strannolyubsky rightly summed up.

AN Strannolyubsky noted the constant sharp contradictions of the author to himself. For example, NG Debolsky wrote that "it is hardly possible to find such a teacher who will deny that the goal of general education is broader than the purpose of preparing for the subsequent study of the specialty, since man is not only a mature specialist, but for the most part a family man andalways a member of the state and various social unions. "How can this fair idea "be reconciled with the author's demand to limit to a minimum the general education of the pupil and at thirteen, fourteen years old, to begin preparing him for a specialty!"Is not the author, in this his demand, the teacher, in whose existence he himself doubted, "AN Strannolyubsky resonated.

NG Debolsky built his system, proceeding from the proposition that "the teaching acquires an educational character only when it is associated with the life of the pet with incentives of interest and benefit."But AN Strannolyubsky noticed that interest and benefit is understood in the narrowest and utilitarian sense, mainly for the realization of the future professional tasks of the student, forgetting about the fact that "his pet is primarily a person, and that only" the ability to read,writing, counting "is not education, but is only a means to it and in no way can it be recognized as sufficient to cause in the pet the desire to give itself" a conscious account both in one's actions and in the phenomena of its environment and environment ".Here again we meet with one of the incessant, sharp contradictions of the author with himself. "

The contradictions and inconsistencies in the general education plan for men proposed by NG Debolsky allowed his opponent to recognize this plan as untenable and declare: "Since the plan of female education is derived by the author from an unsatisfactory male education plan, he,from such a foundation, can not be wealthy ".But AN Strannolyubsky nevertheless expressed his views on the plan of N. G. Debolsky.

The proposed plan for women's education is based on a fundamental difference in the natural purpose of men and women. But if we put the natural purpose of men and women as one of the arguments for finding an expedient general education system for both, "then Mr. Debolsky would have to be regarded as a" profession "and paternity, along with maternity, and then his conclusions, as they depended onfrom this argument, could be correct, "- said AN Strannolyubsky.

The opponent of Nikolai G. Debolsky is struck by the "extremely vague and extremely peculiar" form of the division of the women's general education course into two parts: "1) an obligatory required for every woman( ?) And 2) an optional part, studied for entertainment"( !!) ».Proceeding from such a division, "it turns out that mathematics, natural sciences, foreign languages ​​and their literature, drawing and music belong to the optional part, studied for entertainment( !?).But how does the author achieve "the development of broad spiritual sensitivity" of his pupils by concentrating the mandatory course "mainly on literature and history" if he studies foreign literature as one of the optional subjects? "AN Strannolyubsky asked.

A mathematics teacher could not agree with the fact that for the development of a broad spiritual sensitivity it is possible to limit oneself to the study of Russian literature, and to read a foreign one in translation. In his opinion, the state of Russian translated literature is very weak, many works are not in translations. But even the available material of the translated foreign literature should be adapted to educational and educational purposes. But, admitted Alexander Nikolayevich, if we assume that all obstacles will be eliminated, then the students can begin to engage in a thorough study of history and literature only in the upper grades, "because a very serious and simply mental and moral maturity is needed for such a course. What will the students do in the intermediate classes, after completing the course that embraces the "general educational minimum," before serious studies begin with literature and history? "Hence, the plan of N. G. Debolsky is untenable not only because it requires concentration of the course on an object that has not yet been adapted to the school practice, but also because the central subject can be profitably introduced only in the upper grades, answered its own questionAN Strannolyubsky. It turns out that the course of the middle classes according to the plan of PGDebolsky remains vague and meaningless.

NGDebolsky, allowing in the widest possible scope the beginning of facultativity in the male course, wants to force all students to study literature and history in the most detailed manner, taking away from them the possibility of choosing subjects that may be more appropriate for their abilities and inclinations."This kind of moral violence over the soul of a person is for some reason permitted by the author in relation to the pupils and is not allowed in relation to the pupils."No matter how fine literary and historical education is in itself, but in school everything should be a measure. The implementation of the plan of N. G. Debolsky on "a broad spiritual sensitivity to everything sublime and beautiful" does not provide for the employment of literature in the younger and middle ages, which does not create any prepared ground for its study in the upper grades. Therefore, there is reason to assume that these activities can be reduced to "a number of completely random, unsystematic and extremely painful and boring stylistic exercises. To achieve the goal of Mr. Debolsky, under the currently unfavorable material conditions of teaching, a very talented, lively and widely educated teacher is required. And if it is not? How boring, how unbearably boring it will be for poor students! "Exclaimed AN Strannolyubsky sympathetically.

Petersburg mathematician did not agree with other components of the mandatory course. The circumstance that, introducing the physiology, anatomy and hygiene into a compulsory course, N.D.Debolsky excluded from him the basics of all this - physics and natural sciences. A.N. Strannolyubsky also does not understand why, from the point of view of N.D.Debolsky, a physicist, along with cosmography, for a vast majority of students is a waste of time and energy? !

AN Strannolyubsky recalled the main setting of the plan of N. G.Debolsky: "There is only one normal profession for a woman-a wife, mother and educator," which means that the general education course must be built on this basis, and meanwhile the author "normal "female plan" denies the use of systematic study of pedagogy by pupils, and practical pedagogical studies, which, from his point of view, seemingly should have been in the first place, refer to subjects studied for entertainment( !). "

Regarding the conditions necessary for the implementation of the plan of N. G. Debolsky, with the first of them, "so that the end of the course in women's comprehensive schools does not provide students with any special pedagogical rights," AN Strannolyubsky is in solidarity. In this publication, the teacher did not explain the reasons for the consent, referring the reader to his article "Modern needs of higher women's vocational education".Briefly his position is this: while he was an opponent of confusion between the tasks of general and professional education, in particular pedagogical education, he believed that the training of grammar school girls in the VIII, pedagogical class violated the principle of self-centered school education. There is also a restriction of professional choice, legitimizing the "completely wrong view that a woman should receive general education chiefly and almost uniquely just to become a teacher! Misleading, worthy of deep regret and entailing very serious consequences. "And, perhaps, the most important thing: the professional training of teachers can not be carried out in one year: "This case will only then become on firm and firm ground and will be of real benefit when teacher training for women's educational institutions will be entrusted to special, independent institutions, notconsisting in the gymnasiums, but on the contrary, such that the gymnasium or progymnasium will consist of. The course of such women's pedagogical institutes can hardly be made shorter than three years and should be divided into theoretical and practical. "

The second condition, requiring the refusal of "artificial encouragement of women's general education" through charity, AN Strannolyubsky categorically did not accept. In this case, NG Debolsky is again contradictory. Having set the condition, he at the same time considered that in each educational institution there should be several free vacancies and scholarships for indigent pupils, who differ in their special talent."If Mr. Debolsky was right in his demand," his opponent wrote about this condition, "then, for example, we should immediately close down women's institutions in Russia. Gatchina Orphan Institute, the Gymnasium of the Philanthropic Society and so on. "

The

of AN Strannolyubsky was struck by the categorical and unarguated nature of the third condition - the state and society need to abandon the establishment of general educational women's educational institutions on their own account, giving this right to a private initiative. It turns out that if, for example, the nobility of some province or merchant corporation conceived to open a women's educational institution, then it is not permissible to carry out such an enterprise, since this is a matter of public initiative. But if such an intention came from an individual, it could be carried out. But the activities of private women's schools should obey, according to N. G. Debolsky, "much more strict than now, the supervision of the government inspection."In this regard, the question of A.N. Strannolyubsky was rightly said: "Will the state, without decreasing its dignity, agree to abandon one of its most sacred duties - direct, active and positive participation in the matter of public education and upbringing and, in return,negative and ungrateful role overseer for schools. "However, to monitor such educational institutions, if we assume that they will be created, it is necessary. If the whole matter of women's education is given to a private enterprise, it will be nothing but a product of "purely commercial speculation that has nothing in common with the tasks of enlightenment," and therefore requires "the most vigilant, not only pedagogical, but perhaps even simplepolice officer & lt;. .. & gt;supervision ".

AN Strannolyubsky wished N.D. Debolsky to acknowledge his mistake about the demand that "joining schoolchildren of different social strata in one school" is harmful. Otherwise, "it would be necessary to conclude that Mr. DeBolsky refers negatively to the greatest cultural task of the school - the educational and civilizing influence of it on society and calls for a return to those times when the whole society was strictly divided into shops, estates, corporations, and so on.and each of these isolated social groups had its own separate school - in other words, denies the modern school and at the same time with it and all modern pedagogy. "

AI Strannolyubsky did not accept the ugly and cruel system of training teachers and educators. He also did not understand the division of specialties into masculine and feminine. He was struck by the fact that in a vast article by N.D.Debolsky there are "such pages, the appearance of which in a venerable pedagogical journal, signed by a respected educator who is famous, arouses a deep regret."This, for example, is the reasoning of Nikolai Grigorievich on pages 89-91 in the first part of the article, "where he speaks of some kind of" agitation "(!!) with the aim of exciting" the desire to study masculine specialties "between women."Against whom is the author defending himself?" Asked AN Strannolyubsky and answered him with depressing statistics: "Three or four dozen mathematical students per 55,000,000 male population of the empire annually leave the mathematical faculties of Russian universities. From the special-mathematical department of the St. Petersburg Higher Women's Courses & lt;. .. & gt;for all the time of their existence, that is, for 12 years, there were students who received a higher mathematical education of only 51, for 54,000,000 female population of the empire! And Mr. Debolsky has the spirit to seriously reassure someone that "the aspiration of women to acquire higher education becomes harmful only when it is as if rampant( like some kind of cholera or plague!) Between intelligent women, when in all of themthe predominance of persuasion in the advantage of studying chemistry or medicine before the duties of family life assumes dominance "(!!)".

Both AN Strannolyubsky and NG Debolsky were unanimous in that the existing type of male education is far from perfect, and on this basis no one is going to build a female education on this type.

Thus, the question of the content of the general female education for a long time remained controversial, but in practice the female education was essentially the same as the masculine, skolkom from it. Many people in the public education of Russia understood that women's education should be different from that of men, but how exactly it should be either difficult to answer, or proposed plans that, like the "normal" plan for women's education of NGDebolsky, could not stand criticism.

At the same time, N.Debolsky, when structuring the plan for women's education, rightly proceeded from the physical and psychological differences between men and women. But, unfortunately, this thesis did not find in his plan a fruitful resolution. Conservative nature of the plan manifested itself in the fact that N.D.Debolsky saw the woman only as a wife, mother and educator of her children, but the fact that she was primarily a person was not reflected in this project. P. Kapterev contributed to the resolution of the problem of female education.

Resolution of the problem of female education

An outstanding teacher and psychologist, the founder of Russian pedagogical psychology, Petr Fedorovich-Kapterev( 1849-1922) to the ninetieth year of the XIX century. He was widely known in pedagogical, psychological and philosophical circles thanks to the publication of such fundamental works as "Pedagogical Psychology"( St. Petersburg, 1877, 2nd ed., Pererab., Part 1, St. Petersburg, 1883), "Didactic Essays"(St. Petersburg, 1885), "From the History of the Soul: Essays on the History of the Mind"( St. Petersburg, 1890).

PF Kapterev had sufficient experience in practical pedagogical activity in both male and female audiences. After graduating from the Moscow Theological Academy( 1872), he taught philosophical teachings in the St. Petersburg Theological Seminary for six years, worked at the Alexandrov Lyceum( 1882-1885).After which he, as expressed in the nineteenth century, taught mainly female youth. He taught the history of pedagogy, psychology, Russian literature.logic at the Women's Pedagogical courses of the Mariinsky department, at the Pedagogical Freibelian courses, in private women's gymnasiums( MN Stoyunina, E. P. Shaffe, MA Makarova).

In the spring of 1894, PF Kapterev delivered five lectures, united by the general title "On the characteristic psychic properties of women", in the Pedagogical Museum of Military Educational Institutions in St. Petersburg, which in the same year was published by the journal "Education".The same material, entitled "The Mental Properties of Women," was published as a separate book( St. Petersburg, 1895. - 137 pp.).The problem of female education was considered by the scientist in the articles "A system of a very real female education" and "Ideals of female education".Consequently, the contribution of PF Kapterev to the solution of the women's question.in particular the definition of the content of women's education, is very fruitful: it is a psychological and pedagogical concept, which is an organic synthesis of theoretical reflections, tested by pedagogical practice.

For more than a hundred years after the publication of PF Kapterev's book on the psychic properties of women, psychological science has made great progress. However, the study of the Russian scientist is relevant and interesting in the XXI century.not only from the historical point of view, as belonging to one of the founders of Russian psychology, but also in connection with the fact that the gender issues actively developed in many humanities, and especially in psychology, have acquired special significance.

Already in the Preface to the first edition of "Pedagogical Psychology for Folk Teachers, Teachers and Teachers" PF Kapterev emphasized the integration of psychological and pedagogical knowledge. He wrote that "quite reasonable pedagogical activity is possible only under the condition of more or less detailed acquaintance with mental phenomena."Therefore, "in order to be a teacher, you must first be an anthropologist, that is, a physiologist and a psychologist, because pedagogy without physiology and psychology is not conceivable."Consequently.when drawing up a plan for women's education, it is necessary to know and take into account the psychological characteristics of women.

special value research PFKaptereva consists in the fact that, as in the pre-revolutionary period, and during the Soviet period of Russian history, women's rights defenders and, in particular, their education, proceeded from the thesis of the identity of the male and female nature. The equal rights of men and women were explained by their identical psychic nature. PF Kapterev insistently and very emotionally noted that the vast majority of psychological writings "evaluates women, but does not study, assesses before learning."At the same time, those researchers who did not equate men and women, all the difference reduced only to gender. Such a thesis from Kapterev also caused disagreement: "It is extremely unfair to treat a woman, as well as a man, only in terms of their reproductive functions;but it is also unfair to forget about these functions. They are so important and essential in the life of the body that their significance extends to the whole organism, to all its departures, and not only to reproduction organs. "Thus, he stressed: "Sexual feeling is one of the foundations of social and humane heart movements, many high motivation and desire to remain completely unknown and incomprehensible people, whose sexual functions, due to any reason, paralyzed, suffering genital anesthesia."Thus, the famous Russian scientist, for his work to some extent ahead of the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud( 1856-1939), the main work is beginning to emerge only after 1895( "Interpretation of Dreams" [1900]. "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life"[1904], "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" [1905]).

The richest material about the psychic properties of women, collected and analyzed by PF Kapterev, testifies to the encyclopedism of his knowledge. To confirm his theses the author relied on historical facts, information from philosophy, psychology, medicine, theology, ethnography, jurisprudence, used interesting illustrations from fiction, memoirs, diaries. In addition to Russian and translated literature, the researcher drew large material from sources in foreign languages ​​(German, French, English).

PF Kapterev tried to prove his own point of view with the help of arguments, and his judgment could differ from the views of the largest scientists, including his contemporaries. In the circle of women, but not people. "Such a view, when the "woman-brow-age reduced to the level of female females and nurses," when "its specific properties are emphasized, come to the fore, and universal forgotten", "wrong with the physiological and psychological points of view and is harmful socially".This view narrows down the activities of women and thereby harms culture. Against a narrow understanding of women advocates of the theory of complete identity of the mental nature of men and women advocate. But the slogan about the identity of male and female nature, the scientist emphasized, is not based on scientific data.

PF Kapterev saw his task is to generalize the available data on the female psyche and determine whether it has original, original features or not. In the male soul there is, not a single process, not a single fact that would be incomprehensible and alien to the female soul, the scientist stressed. A female companion of a man, so all the feelings that a man experiences are peculiar to her. Hence, "the female soul in essence, according to the main processes and properties, is the same with the male soul;elements of mental life are the same in both sexes. Consequently, the psychic difference between the sexes, if any, will consist in the combination of the basic mental elements, in the strength and tension of the different sides of mental activity, and not in the essence of the soul. "

Peculiarities of the psychological warehouse of women, PF Kapterev believed, are determined by two reasons: the specificity of the female physical type and the historical position of the woman. These factors "stipulate that neither in the heart nor in the head of a woman there is no beat, no movement, no idea, which would not bear the imprint of a feminine character."

A wide variety of physiological processes fills the woman's consciousness with feelings of an organic nature, develops physical self-knowledge. Women care more about their health, their body, than men. In their self-awareness, the physical "I" plays a very important role. All the comments about her appearance, her toilet, her manner, the woman takes very close to heart.

Knowing better your body, women and own it better. They can easily find the right tone, a suitable gesture, to give their person the appropriate expression. Women not only masterfully play on stage, but also in life. Especially they know how to skillfully cry. PF Kapterev cited the eloquent opinion of the Italian anthropologist and sociologist P. Mantegazzza( 1831-1910): "The woman who is crying is strong;a woman who knows how to cry beautifully, is all-powerful. "

The second important consequence of the female physical type is a large, in comparison with men, need of love."The whole being, the whole nature of a woman demands love, affection, participation and outside the atmosphere of love, a woman withers, loses her best properties;woman seeks love as a flower to the sun. "

The man in love is dominated by an element of personal pleasure, his feeling is faster, more passionate, "a woman in love is dominated by the satisfaction of the needs of the genus, the desire to have children, as a result of which this feeling assumes an extremely serious and profound meaning throughout the life of the woman;at the same time, her feeling is distinguished by a weaker personal pleasure and less impetuosity. "A woman even has a maternal instinct in her relationships with her beloved.

"Being deep," PF Kapterev noted, "love fills the whole woman, penetrates it through and through, so that no cell or atom remains in the woman who does not live and does not tremble under the influence of love. Therefore, love can regenerate a woman, profoundly change the whole of her mental system. "About.how profound and meaningful for women, even for those who devoted themselves to social vocation, science or art, the need for love, PF Kapterev showed, by the example of life, the outstanding Russian scientist SV Kovalevskaya.

Of course, men also need love. But "women in this respect are seen superiority over men, a preponderance, conditioned by the very being of the Female organism."Many outstanding women, devoting their lives to science, art, and other activities, nevertheless, in love, saw the supreme goal of life. In men, everything is different. The life of men who have reached public recognition is full and without love. A good illustration, according to PF Kapterev.are biographical facts from the life of the greatest philosophers I. Kant and B. Spinoza.

However, as women engage in various professional and social activities, "as they more and more will carry the center of their lives and activities from their own" I "outside of themselves. .., the better they will resistthe instinctive need of love, the easier it will be without it and approaching men in this respect. "To achieve this goal, you need proper education.

The third consequence of a woman's physical life is her greater dependence on a certain environment than a man. A woman can not, like a soldier, throw up a satchel on her back and immediately set off on a long march. The natural feeling of dependence was reinforced by the servile, disenfranchised position of the woman. All this is reflected in the less independence of women, their less love for freedom, less entrepreneurialism.

PF Kapterev emphasized the interconnection and interdependence of the feeling of dependence inherent in women by their physiological nature and reinforced by their historical position, and the religiosity of women. He explained the strong religious feeling peculiar to women, by the consciousness of dependence on the higher power, the consciousness of his own weakness, the desire to find an unshakable support, a strong patron and protector.

The religious feeling of women is peculiar: it, when combined with a feeling of love, forms a psychologically original phenomenon. Women often mix earthly love with the heavenly, especially when the needs of earthly love have not been realized.

Thus, "the prominent role of the specific functions of the female organism, in connection with the historical position of a woman, is reflected in the woman's mind by the following phenomena: the development of physical self-knowledge, the need for love as a generic instinct and not for personal pleasure, and a sense of dependence that serves as the basis for women's religiosity;which often merges with them with love, "concluded PF Kapterev.

Female consciousness is filled with "very powerful streams of feelings" that have a strong influence on the mood of a woman and some aspects of her heart life. However, only on the basis of these facts, it is premature to claim that women are generally sensitive."Sensitivity," explained the scientist, "signifies a very broad property, embracing not only some feelings and some aspects of the woman's heart life, but the whole life of the heart and even of the mind."Therefore, it is necessary to characterize this phenomenon in more detail.

"Sensitivity can be viewed from two perspectives: as the sensitivity of the physical, the organs of the external senses, and as the sensitivity of the psychic, mild excitability manifestations of the true, good, beautiful, merry, sad, as the ability to tenderness and sympathy."Both types of sensitivity are closely related, because physical and mental processes are inherent in one person. Physical sensitivity largely determines mental sensitivity.

After analyzing the opinions of supporters and opponents of a greater or lesser physical sensitivity of women and men, PF Kapterev concluded that women are more likely and more willing than men to use organs of external senses in their lives, their psychic life is directly related to their activities. So, in relation to the usual impressions of the environment, women are more sensitive than men. After all, in life is not important supersensitivity, which is often possessed by men, but the ability to distinguish what is around us, "and this is precisely the property and women own. Yes, and they can not not own, because the hostess and teacher of their children, willy-nilly, must constantly exercise all their external feelings. "

Psychic sensitivity PF Kapterev understood as "light excitability by various psychic influences, as the ability to quickly reach an extremely high degree of unrest, the ability to change and change the feelings, the expressiveness of feelings outside," and concluded that in women suchsensitivity prevails. Quickly arising, the feelings of a woman reach the highest degrees of development and easily become violent affects."Fright, horror, anger, shyness - all this storm sweeps in the heart of a woman, shaking her whole body. A woman in affect is more merciless than a man, her hatred without boundaries, her enmity is inexorable, her terror without the slightest glimmer of hope. But, quickly arising, rapidly developing, women feel fast and pass, change and even alternate. "

Features of female sensitivity are reflected in female crime. More than half of the crimes committed by women are directed against the person and life, and men have property offenses.

The distinctive property of women's feelings is their distinct, energetic expression: their entire process of development of feeling is accomplished with greater ease and speed, "the time between intention and its performance, between feeling and corresponding action is less. In short, from this point of view, women are beings with a weaker delay in reflexes than men. "

Specific features of female sensitivity, according to PF Kapterev, two: shame and compassion. Shyness is not an innate property of man, it is instilled in culture and upbringing."Shyness has now become the second, cultural, nature of women, shameless woman is something abnormal."Elementary kind of shyness - shyness sexual, then - physical, on the basis of which the shyness develops mental, moral.

The main source of female compassion is motherhood."A woman is a natural guardian of children, in her love the basis is a maternal instinct, and actually love is an addition to motherhood."The development of women's compassion was promoted by the historical position of women, whose activities were peaceful, alien to violence, limited mainly by the family, close people. The woman did not engage in battle with the enemies, did not leave the family hearth for a long time, "so her compassion found herself a constant food, while the severity, cruelty had no application."

PF Kapterev did not share the opinion that women do not have a sense of anger and that they are characterized by natural meekness. The scientist's explanations are as follows: women are easily excited and reach their highest feelings in the manifestation of their feelings, which also determines the appearance of anger. A sense of dependence does not serve as an obstacle for him. As for meekness, this is "not gentleness, but the compassion of a woman, her tactfulness, the ability to deal with people, adapt to them, act not outright, but in accordance with the individual properties of persons, as applied to circumstances."

Based on the great psychic sensitivity, which determines the significant sensitivity of women to all good and good, many researchers conclude that women of the highest degree of morality are characteristic of women. PF Kapterev considered such a conclusion hasty and groundless.

Although female criminals are significantly fewer than male criminals, there are very serious crimes that women commit more often than men. Their character also reflects the characteristics of the physical and mental make-up of a woman and her social position. A woman makes a significant number of crimes within the family, family and love relationships. So, grave female crimes are: infanticide and etching of the fetus, murder of the spouse, parents and relatives, poisoning, arson, robbery, robbery.

Unfortunately, involving women in cultural construction increases female crime, "a huge difference in the crime of both sexes begins to decrease," PF Kapterev rightly noted. To prevent the growth of female crime, to increase the morality of women will help correct work and education.

It is possible to represent women's feelings more clearly if we compare them with men's. A man who has long been prone to war and hunting has "great courage, the ability to risk his and others' lives, even some inclination for cruelty, but at the same time more freedom and independence, less ability to subordinate and more entrepreneurial."For a woman is characterized by a propensity to compromise, to the world, and a man is less accepting. A woman calmly perceives all kinds of transitional states, for example, the position of the bride, and the man does not have any uncertainty about it: the status of the candidate, the groom, the privat-docent, does not suit him."Finally, one can not help noticing that some feelings, such as love of mankind, a thirst for glory, respect for the psychic rights of the individual, and others, presuppose a serious and broad theoretical mental development, and therefore can dominate only in that soul - anyway, male orfemale - in which there is a stated condition. In the general conclusion, "concluded PF Kapterev," a woman should still be recognized both physically and mentally more sensitive than a man. "

The greater sensitivity of women makes them susceptible to various impressions, coming from the social environment. As soon as any new strong current appears in the spiritual life of society, women become its hot propagandists. For example, in the history of the spread of Christianity, the role of women is extremely high.

The life of a woman is mainly concentrated in the family. Even if it goes beyond the family circle, engaging in public or professional activities, then "at least half of the female being belongs to the family, there the roots of the woman's activities."The man is different: he spends a considerable amount of time outside the family.

In the circle of female activity, the predominant object is the person. First of all, it's her own personality."The woman's physical and mental self are fused together, they penetrate each other more than men's; she has fewer bifurcations in the woman's personality, it is more intact, as if made from one piece;it does not break into a lot of individuals, which often happens with a man. "

A woman around her constantly sees the person, lives with them, communicates with them. With a centuries-old dependent position from parents and from her husband, she needed a thorough knowledge of all their properties. The woman could not act by force, "she could only act with conviction, caress, skillfully playing on their weak strings, encouraging them, setting them on fire, exciting, imperceptibly inspiring their views and then graciously giving her inspired views for the original work of her father or husband."The woman had to carefully study the personality of the children, to educate them, to manage them, and in case of need to have them on their side against their husband or father. She must know well the personalities of relatives, acquaintances, neighbors, servants."Personality in all the diversity of its properties is the starting point of women's thinking," the scientist emphasized.

In the thinking of men, the idea of ​​personality is less important than in a woman's thinking. While engaging in a business life in which people participate only in certain properties and not in the whole person, a man has a great propensity for an abstract understanding of the environment, and therefore, a different way of thinking. On the contrary, the fundamental property of the female mind is that "everywhere in the basis put an integral personality or an integral object."

A woman is better than a man who understands a particular person, her needs and demands. She understands perfectly the children, even those who do not yet speak. She is indispensable at the bedside of the patient, because she feels any change in his mood. The most perceptive woman becomes when it comes to the cordial side of the people around her.

Having a perfect understanding of personality, a woman can not approach living people in terms of dead formulas, she is hated by formalism and leveling. Every person for her is a unique phenomenon that does not fit into the general framework, which must be perceived and evaluated by itself. A woman always stands for an exception to the rule, and more often than not, "with such an exception, such a completely unique, incomparable person, unique in its kind, a woman wants to be and be considered primarily herself," PF Kapterev noted.

For a woman, every idea is embodied in a famous person. Men are most attracted by the principles of the new idea, its essence, and women - the personality of the reformer. In the debate about ideas and principles, men themselves are important reasoning, every individuality for them fades."Man is brought only to the mind."Women never forget their personality."Therefore, their dispute is more lively, passionate, quicker and easier turns into taunts. Women in a dispute not so much prove how much they try to persuade, that is, to touch on different aspects of the person, to influence the whole person, and not just his mind. "

The concept of personality, which is the basis of women's thinking, has a number of consequences. For the thinking of a woman, a tendency to a living versatile understanding and representation, to embracing the subject from all sides, to encyclopedic character is typical. A man has to deal with objects of a wider range, so he needs to concentrate his forces, concentrate them on one direction. It follows that the male mind is one-sided.

PF Kapterev compared the position of a woman as the mistress of the house and the mother of the family with the position of the man as a financier, scientist, official, trader and concluded that "a woman comes into contact with more diverse aspects and relations of life than a man. Straightforward and one-sided activity of a man requires greater depth, greater tension and consistency in one direction;the activity of a woman is less deep, but more versatile and diverse. "

Of course, a woman, engaged in professional activities, can go into her head, "to become mentally as one-sided as a man. Such examples, as well as versatile, encyclopedic men, there were many ".But in the prevailing cases, the author emphasized, the woman has more aspirations for versatility than the man.

For female thinking, life and coloring are characteristic. Women are characterized by a figurative understanding of reality, rather than abstract, they understand the individual and the whole more clearly than the general and fractional. Analytic reasoning woman prefers synthetic constructions, reviews of objects in their integrity and totality.

A woman, setting a goal, sees and means necessary to achieve it. Her mind is more practical, sober, as he embraces things in various ways, he has in mind all their properties, and not any one. A woman is usually not set by distant goals, for which she does not see the means at her disposal. She is a realist, living in reality, in the present, not having the desire to pursue a short-lived fantasy.

This property of the female mind, as well as the historical position of the woman, can explain the nature of her participation in the development of culture. It has long been engaged in the cultivation of land, handicrafts, the manufacture of household goods, cooking. She - the ancestor of all the original material culture, which reflected the myths of different peoples.

The division of labor between a man and a woman was determined by the natural properties of the male and female types, influencing, in turn, their development and strengthening. War and hunting required men to be courageous and enterprising, taught them to live in extra-family interests;the attention of women, on the contrary, is directed at the family. Women skillfully use the objects of the environment, attentive to all the small things, are patient. Long-term employment of a woman, stemming from the properties of her mental type and features of life, are practical medicine and the upbringing of children.

Being engaged in close subjects, the woman needed variety. If her thoughts lingered on one subject for a long time, then she began to get bored, burdened by such an occupation. Hence arose a strong need for women in conversation, questioning, female curiosity.

The versatility and liveliness of the feminine mind, the propensity for a rapid change of occupation, causes the women's weak disposition to abstract thinking. Based on this provision, many researchers, in particular J. J. Rousseau, argue that women are not subject to either exact or philosophical sciences. They also do not have the capacity for creativity. Even such a well-known English philosopher, defender of gender equality, as DS Mill, recognized this reproach as just. The arguments of DS Mill are as follows: women did not create any new, brilliant idea that would form an era in the history of thought, did not lay down a fundamentally new concept, did not constitute the founders of any new school. All their works are based on the already existing capital of thought.

DS Mill and other advocates of gender equality explain this indisputable assertion by the lack of a good, fundamental education. PF Kapterev is in solidarity with them. Indeed, many centuries of female education did not exist at all, the female mind did not practice in scientific work, did not try itself in scientific creativity. Although women did not create such works that would mark a new era in the history of thought and art, but "that the most famous women never say anything of their own neither in content nor in form, so that they are just simple populyashs and exact imitators of men - thisis completely unfair, "the scientist said and confirmed the names of the famous women in confirmation. This mathematician SV Kovalevskaya, physicist M. Somerville, writers George Sand, ND Khvoshchinskaya, George Eliot, Germain de Stael, artist E. Lebrun, R. Bonhur, politicians Catherine II, Maria Theresa, Queen Elizabeth of England. Women have shown talent in many branches of mental work. The difference between talent and genius, according to the researcher, is a gradual, not a qualitative one.

The reasons for the fact that women discovered an allegedly lesser intellectual originality than men, PF Kapterev saw in that the female mind is less inclined to abstract thinking. An essential condition for making discoveries and creating original ideas is the ability to be distracted from particulars, to see among the masses of things a unifying core. And this is not characteristic of the women's versatile thinking. The social position of women also hinders the development of her abstract thinking. Every day, a lot of small things( when raising children, farming) takes the woman's attention. While maintaining public relations and dating, attention to detail is further increased.

The practicality of the female mind, its ability to adapt to these living conditions also little contributes to the emergence of new, original ideas, which at first tend to be ridiculous, strange, cause disagreement with generally accepted norms, overcome stagnation of views. But, he noted, the highest spheres of creativity, like abstract thought, are cultural acquisitions, and "no contradiction exists between these forms and the nature of the female mind".Developing, humanity has acquired these abilities. The successes of outstanding women and the "successes of the student of female youth in the passage of serious training courses undoubtedly testify to the possibility of a wide development of abstract thinking and creativity in the female mind, although the gravitation towards the concrete in women will always outweigh the same for men. Therefore, the gradual increase in the ability of the female mind to the higher forms of creativity is a completely natural and even necessary phenomenon in the future history of mankind, with the changing conditions of the woman's position in society and her education, "Kapterev said.

Comparing the female and male types, it is usually said that a woman has a feeling, and a man has a mind. According to the scientist, this formulation is not entirely accurate and correct, it can only be accepted with reservations. The perfect type must represent harmony between the mind and the heart, "must combine the power of thinking with the power and subtlety of feelings."However, many thinkers for a long time highly appreciated the mind and very low heart. For a full human life, both mind and feeling are important and equal. The development of culture presupposes not only the progress of ideas, but also feelings, the gradual predominance of "friendly, peaceful and ideal feelings in mankind over hostile and selfish ones".

Thus, the components of a person's mental life are cognition and feeling. Hence it follows that the human genius is of two kinds: the genius of the mind and the genius of the heart. PF Kapterev figuratively, emotionally characterized by one and the other genius: one "embraces the whole universe with his mind, the other concludes it in his heart."To say which genius is higher, more significant, more fruitful is impossible."Both are great, both are beautiful, although they are different in nature. The genius of the mind is the male genius, the genius of the heart is feminine. "However, the scientist warned, it is illogical to attribute certain properties to one psychic type, others to others: there were many talented women in the mental sphere, there were many men with a sensitive, sympathetic heart."Speech can only go about the predominant gravitation in one direction or the other in most ordinary, average men and women," the author corrected.

The existing system of female education, which PF Kapterev described as "a man's education somewhat modified, does not allow a truly defined female psychic type. There is no originality in women's education: it is a skolk, a copy from a man's. "

PF Kapterev is confident that the time will come when a woman "will live and develop freely, according to her type, when education is a necessary property of a woman, education is not in the form of a copy, a split from the male, but her own, original. Then the female type will unfold in all its glory and originality, then recognize the woman as a peculiar being not only in the physical, but also in the mental, moral and other relationships;then a woman will be a woman completely, without a significant admixture of male elements and properties, as she is at the present time. "

To develop in all its glory and originality female type will help a scientifically based system of female education.

Ideal of a truly humane and real female education

One of the most important foundations of all education is its ideoloso identity. In women's education, PF Kapterev emphasized, "the ideal-like nature has always been especially visible and noticeable", since his ideal was determined by his views on the position of women in society and on its nature, which were understood in different ways. According to the first glance, a woman depends entirely on the man, she is, figuratively speaking, a "creeping plant, wrapped around a strong tree."According to another point of view, a woman is an independent being equal to a man who has the same rights as he. These two views, according to the scientist, determine two groups of different ideals of female education, the first generates aesthetic and utilitarian ideals, and the second - universal.

For many centuries, the natural state of a woman was addiction. Being independent, experiencing the need "to exist only by the man's affection and love, a woman must inevitably cultivate those properties that could attract the love of a man to her, give her the opportunity to influence him and, if necessary, dominate him. Such a powerful instrument in the hands of a woman was beauty, "PF Kapterev noted. Against the beauty did not object and the man who saw in the woman a source of pleasure, "whose value was greatly increased from a beautiful precious frame. Thus began the aesthetic ideal of women's education, whose kingdom has not yet come to an end. "

The aesthetic ideal of female education has two forms: a simpler and coarse one, consisting primarily of caring for the adornment of the body, and a higher and more complex one, not rejecting the care of the body, but supplementing it with the adornment of the spirit, supplying "his talents that increase the beauty of the female being".

The aesthetic ideal of the first form prevailed among those peoples who eliminated women from any social activity, closing them within the family. Even in the XVIII century.continued to view the woman "as a being who has the purpose to personify in society a pleasure, to offer and give it to all. Such views were especially firmly held in France, according to which a woman of higher education had to be brought up and adjusted. "She studied the corners of the body, the slopes of her head, she learned to eat, drink, bow, to stick to herself the flies, to blow her nose.

Insensitive to caring for the adornment of the body, there were worries about decorating the spirit. The knowledge received by girls in women's educational institutions "was intended precisely for decorating the spirit, serious mental exercises were not allowed, were considered inappropriate for the nature of women, dangerous and harmful to it," noted PF Kapterev. In Russia and in the XVIII, and even in the first half of the XIX century.the system of female education "preferred decorating useful".The successes of the pupils in the French language, dances were appreciated. The curriculum of Russian institutes included chronology, mythology, architecture, heraldry, drawing, the art of composing poetry, playing theater plays. Serious education was very meager, and it was not welcomed, because the prevailing views in the society claimed: "The woman was created solely to please the man. .. the deepening in the sciences does not belong to her at all."

The aesthetic ideal of female education has its foundations. Firstly, it reflects the historical view of a woman "who was not considered to be able to give any serious role than the lovers of family and society, some dessert at a life feast," and secondly, it is conditioned by the very nature of the woman.

However, the rights and position of women have not changed, "but, due to the peculiarities of one's own organism," PF Kapterev rightly noted, "a woman will always remain the manager of the house, the organizer of the family."Cares about the house and family require from it aesthetic development. In the very nature of women, a great aesthetic need is laid, the aesthetic vein constantly beats in it. The feeling of love, important for a woman's life, has the closest relationship to the aesthetic side."Love and beauty are sisters who share their life's journey;one withers, another withers;when beauty and the youth and freshness that are close to it perish, then love perishes with them, "the scientist recalled.

Aesthetic meets the characteristics of the female mind. The beautiful implies something accessible to perception by the organs of external senses, integral, alien to all distractions, understandable at first sight."And women's thinking is characterized by a desire for clarity, an understanding of objects in general, an unwillingness to abstract. On all women's thinking lies the seal of artistry, therefore aesthetics is a property that is close to women, enters into their physical and mental nature, "the scientist summarized.

Thus, the aesthetic ideal of female education is not only the fruit of the dependent historical position of women, but also has a support in the female nature. Therefore, this is not a false ideal, but only an extremely one-sided one."Aesthetics should be a prominent element of the female educational ideal, but under no circumstances can it be all, its very essence.& lt;. .. & gt;A woman is, like a man, a useful worker, and at the same time an elegant creature, "the teacher concluded.

The utilitarian ideal of female education arose a long time ago and developed in parallel with the aesthetic. For many centuries, a woman was equated with a pack animal and from that she benefited accordingly. The ideal woman, both among the ancient peoples, and in the Christian world, was an enterprising housewife and a good mother. F. Fenelon and J. J. Rousseau theoretically described such an ideal, respectively, in the XVII and XVIII centuries.

F. Fenelon believed that education should prepare both men and women for a future life. The girl will have to be the mother and teacher of her children, keep housekeeping, observe the servants, first of all be a good Christian. Therefore, it is necessary to give her a thorough religious education, to introduce the methods of raising children, to teach them how to manage their household. To be a good housekeeper, knowledge is necessary. The girl must learn how to correctly and clearly read and write, know the four actions of arithmetic, get acquainted with the elements of jurisprudence, get information from ancient and domestic history, do not neglect the Latin language as the language of the church. From the arts, preference is given to drawing and religious music. This is the ideal of the feminine education of F. Fenelon, in which utilitarianism is given the main place.

A similar ideal is found in J. J. Rousseau. The difference between the ideals of F. Fenelon and J. J. Rousseau, according to PF Kapterev, lies in the fact that "Fenelon demanded from the woman more seriousness, religiosity and practicality than Rousseau, whose ideal is more secular, more brilliant and elegant, than the ideal of Fenelon "[38, №3, 9].PF Kapterev recalled the main postulates of women's upbringing, proclaimed by J. J. Rousseau: "The woman's dignity lies in hiding in the unknown;its glory lies in respecting her husband;pleasure - in the happiness of the family ";"Dependence is a state peculiar to women, girls feel created for obedience."

Under Catherine II, aesthetic ideal dominated in women's education, including civil and universal elements. When the women's educational institutions submitted to Empress Maria Feodorovna( 1796-1828), a utilitarian ideal spread. At that time, the principle was maintained that "as a mistress, a woman is a worthy and useful member of the state".This statement permeates the book of J. G. Kampé "Father's Councils of My Daughter", which was read in the women's institutes of Russia. From her, the students learned that it was harmful for women to engage in science, arts and foreign languages. Moreover, for the well-being of her husband, in Campe's opinion, a woman must first of all be "a perfect seamstress, weaver, hosiery and cook, should share her existence between a child's kitchen, a cellar, a barn, a courtyard and a garden;must fly the whole day from one place to another. While treating the guests of the husband, one should not sit on the sofa as if chained;there must be a perfect counter, especially good in the mind, so that when shopping is not deceived. "

The utilitarian ideal, as well as the aesthetic ideal, is based both on the historical position of the woman and on her very nature. While humankind will live with families, until then someone - man or woman - needs to keep house. A woman is more suitable for this business: her mind is sober and practical, she is accustomed to various kinds of manual labor. Economy and economics are a very difficult and complex undertaking, involving a variety of knowledge, a great tact and a strong, consistent character.

PF Kapterev rightly stressed that "the utilitarian ideal of women's education is extremely one-sided, far from covering the entire essence of women."The family, led by a woman who does not have a scientific and aesthetic education, is like a nest, pursuing extremely miserable and, moreover, purely egoistic aspirations. According to the defenders of this ideal, a woman should never look out of her family nest;should not seek to know what is happening in the country and in the world;the children's and the kitchen are her age-long destiny."All sorts of utilitarianism and specialties," the teacher emphasized, "are not based on universal education, on humanitarian education, are always given very poor results. Therefore, the utilitarian ideal of female education, taken in its entirety, is false and one-sided by its very essence. "But, the scientist warned, it can not be rejected completely, there is some truth in it. He pursues the idea of ​​the need for a life-style statement of women's education, the importance for women of professional knowledge. Therefore, some of its elements should be part of a broader ideal that "would be built on a broad basis of all female nature, would have a living attitude to all the characteristics of women, physical and mental," concluded PF Kapterev.

Changing the view of the position of a woman, the recognition of her human rights led to the emergence of a universal human ideal of female education. A woman is as independent an entity as a man. A man and a woman are "two equal and able beings who enter into a free union not for the sake of domination and subordination, but for the sake of a more complete, diversified life and fruitful activity", PF Kapterev recalled fair statements that became widespread during the women's emancipation. Further, he noted that these thoughts about the equality of men and women led to the assumption that they are the same in spirit. The identity of men and women determined the similarity of their education. Therefore, female education is a skolk from the masculine and essentially the same with it, with the only difference being that the female course is a lightweight male course.

Statements about that.that "the relations between men and women must be relations of mutual dependence, joint friendly work, mutual replenishment of each other, and not submission to one another - & lt;. .. & gt;are absolutely fair. But the conclusion drawn from this on the similarity of the mental nature of men and women is completely wrong, "the scientist stated. In his lectures, he proved that the spiritual world of women is unique. Meanwhile, it is necessary to remember the main conclusion made by PF Kapterev: "Similarities between men and women are psychologically, as in the physical, generic, significant, and the differences are species, less radical, although very important."

The system of women's education, according to the teacher, can be built in three models, which logically exhaust all the significant opportunities in its changes:

1) female education is fundamentally the same with the male, different from it only a smaller volume;

2) female education is fully equated to masculine;

3) women's education as a special educational and training system based on universal goals and ideals, taking into account the psychological characteristics of women's nature and the resulting status of women in society.

PF Kapterev believed that the foundations of female and male education should be the same, since the nature of men and women is fundamentally the same, the difference existing between them is manifested in additional, specific properties. But it is very important to observe this difference in the education of women compared with the education of men, which is reflected in the third model of women's education.

Male education of the second half of the XIX century.far from perfect, it represents "the product of certain features in the course of the cultural development of Western Europe, the relationship of Western culture to the ancient, Greco-Roman."It is necessary to create a course adapted to the spiritual properties of boys and girls."Until then," warned and instructed PF Kapterev, "while the teachers do not take this psychological point of view, they will not be freed from the yoke of all legends and prejudices, until the training courses they devised are artificial, insufficiently substantiated on the basis of anthropology data;until then their pedagogy will be fantastic, a mixture of legends, prejudices, scholasticism and a grain of small personal experience. "

But even if we admit that the male educational course is excellent, then this is not the reason for mastering it by the women's schools."A woman differs from a man not only physically, but also mentally, and the female education system must take into account the characteristics of the female psychic type, and not slavishly copy the male educational system. Both male and female educational systems undoubtedly have common bases and should be the same in principles;but they must be different, just how different are man and woman.& lt;. .. & gt;Women should have their own educational ideal, which has the bases common with the masculine, but nonetheless is different from it, "PF Kapterev emphasized once again.

Women's education must be truly humane and real, its ideal should strive for harmonious satisfaction of all spiritual needs of women, meet both universal human and specific female characteristics."A woman is similar to a man and different from him, she, being a man, is a woman," the teacher recalled.

Many scientists, trying to build a system of female education in relation to the properties of female nature, focus on specific female characteristics, giving little value to the universal. The result is a real system of purely female education, but very one-sided, not covering the whole nature of a woman, not satisfying all of her needs. Such a model, having a scientific appearance on the outside, but based on utilitarian and aesthetic ideals, was developed by the French scientist Tulle.

The goal of education is to prepare for life. From this point of view, the upbringing of a woman must be permeated with the idea of ​​motherhood. It is necessary that the girl in advance prepared for the performance of her maternal function, making the elements of knowledge and science in this process. Therefore, the range of knowledge associated with the reproductive function of women and the upbringing of children should be included in women's education.

A woman is not only a mother, but also a wife. She wants to be loved, to enjoy youth. And since beauty is one of the causative agents of love, a woman must cultivate it. In a word, it is necessary to inspire the girls with the idea of ​​the need to take care not only of their health, but also of beauty, to which the innate instinct inspires women.

This system is real, but it is not a system of comprehensive education of women, it affects only the education of the sexual, specifically female;"It is not built on the totality of the properties represented by women, but only on some;the universal human qualities of women in the above system are almost completely unaffected. That is why the entire system is narrow and one-sided, "the teacher summed up.

The supreme motive of the stated system is the family, its interests and needs. Motherhood is the center where everything comes from and where everything should come back. But is it just and useful to limit the whole horizon of a woman to a family?"The family," PF Kapterev emphasized, "is undoubtedly a higher principle in relation to an individual person, but it is itself only an element in relation to more complex and higher entities, such as society, people, humanity. The tasks, goals and meaning of the family can not be understood and determined outside the family's connection with society and the people. "A woman is not only a wife and mother, but also a person. By the birth and upbringing of children, it does not exhaust its human purpose. The family, having narrow and small interests, often comes into conflict with public and civil interests, than deprives itself of internal dignity and rationality.

The proposed system of women's education completely ignores the fact that a woman's life is much longer than her sexual functions and educational activities. She also recommends nothing to girls who do not marry. Therefore, such a statement of female education must be recognized as narrow and inadequate. It should be broader.

"The modern course of women's education, in the opinion of PF Kapterev, with all its shortcomings, has that significant merit that it seeks to develop in her woman its universal human qualities, to awaken in her the consciousness of the public, humanity and broad cultural interests."But it can and should be supplemented by the culture of motherhood.

The true system of women's education should satisfy the female characteristics of two types: universal and specifically female, and should take into account the current status of women in society. The woman has ceased to be a dependent, subordinate being. Now, as an independent being, it must contribute to culture its own contribution, corresponding to its abilities. The position of a woman influenced her relationship with a man, an alliance with which should be determined not by the principle of subordination, but by the beginning of mutual assistance and dependence, the beginning of joint activity for achieving common goals."A woman," PF Kapterev emphasized, "should be able to lead an independent independent life, should have support in itself."To such independence, the education they receive must prepare women.

Every woman, every girl should receive general and professional education: "General education is necessary for understanding the culture and familiarizing oneself with it, for the consciousness of one's human rights and duties, for the comprehensive development of one's abilities;vocational education is necessary in order to have a piece of bread in order to enjoy some kind of material security and economic independence. "

Modern female education, according to PF Kapterev, is extremely theoretical: "It introduces girls to several sciences and languages, to the literature of different peoples, and this almost limits the whole thing. Women's comprehensive schools are beyond any connection with professional institutions. "Meanwhile, a woman needs first of all to win economic independence. Get her women can only through professional education.

So, a truly humane and real female education should be:

"1) in its essence universal;

2) at the same time applicable to specific female properties and then

3) by all means professional. "

Defining the composition and volume of the general education course, as well as the entire women's education, it is necessary to keep in mind the health of students."Overwork is bad, of course, for boys, but even more harmful for girls;their body, especially in the critical period, is much more inclined to all kinds of diseases than men's, "noted PF Kapterev. The educational courses of schools, as a rule, are characterized by the complexity and vastness of the programs, a multitude of educational subjects. The school seeks to give the students as much knowledge as possible, not understanding that its task is to awaken and strengthen interest in mental work, accustom them to mental labor, explain how to take it for various purposes, how to lead it, and provide the necessary manuals for self-studywork.

Both hygienic and pedagogical considerations require curtailment of training courses."It is necessary that the students pass the training cheerfully, not exhausted, so that they do not result in disgust or complete indifference to intellectual pursuits, and there would be a hunt for mental labor," PF Kapterev recommended. It is necessary to reduce everything that requires only mechanical memorization.

The women's education course should be divided into three sections, according to the teacher's opinion, in accordance with the break in the physical development of women. It is impossible to ignore such a fact in the history of the development of the female personality, it must be taken into account when planning the educational course."The female personality is physically and mentally formed after the crisis, then cast into its final form, acquires fully all female characteristics, both physical and spiritual," PF Kapterev recalled. Classes before the crisis, during and after it should differ in the degree of severity, tension and systemativeness. The weakening of lessons during the critical period will not affect the assimilation of educational material, as women develop faster than men."In general, the women's education course can move forward somewhat faster than the male, without creating any special difficulties. A woman is mentally more mobile than a man, her mind is quicker, quicker and better grasps than the mind of men. Under absolutely identical conditions of employment, a woman of the same abilities as a man will always be ahead of the latter, "the teacher stressed.

In the general formulation of female education, its tone and subjects, PF Kapterev recommended, we must pay attention to two characteristic features of the female psyche: the greater importance in the life of women of feelings than of men, and the versatility of the female mind. These two features very significantly determine both the composition of the women's general education course, and the general peculiar tone of the organization of women's educational institutions.

Dryness and scholasticity of education, its abstract and formal setting are undesirable and harmful in any audience, but are especially undesirable and harmful in women's education. The extreme dryness of school education is due to many reasons. The main, in the opinion of PF Kapterev, is "the loss of one's pupils in the school of their personality, turning it into a simple number".In a family the child lives with all the features of his personality and therefore develops more or less comprehensively. But as soon as he comes to school, so "now from a peculiar being with many personal properties, he turns into a student in such and such a class, drowns in the school sea."

When organizing women's education, it is necessary to eliminate the conditions causing the disappearance of the student's personality at school. PF Kapterev pointed out three main:

1. A large concentration of students in one school gives it the appearance of a factory or barracks, deprives it of coziness and family character, and makes it impossible for pedagogical personnel to take an attentive attitude to the students' personalities. For the education of girls, it is important that the school bore the seal of the family, even if it is large. In classes there should not be more than 20-25 students.

2. Insufficient respect for the child's personality, insufficient attention to its needs and interests.

3. Too early specialization, early isolation of educational subjects. How many subjects, so many teachers."Each teacher knows the girl only from the side of her subject and does not know her as a whole person. Everyone therefore influences and can influence only one side of the child's mind, and not the whole mind. "Education of the whole personality does not happen.

Meanwhile, PF Kapterev recalled, in the mind of a woman the idea of ​​the person occupies a central position, the abstract beginnings seem to her to be something soulless and distant.

The importance of feeling in a woman's life prompts to pay attention to the staging of two subjects that are included in the course of women's education, literature and the Law of God. Literature - this "chronicle of the human heart, human joys and sorrows," can significantly contribute to the enlightenment and ennoblement of feelings. Strengthening of serious religious and moral mood and broad tolerance is an important task in all respects, the study of the Law of God promotes.

Another important feature of the female soul that influences the setting of the women's educational course is the versatility of the female mind.

In the male educational course, languages ​​and mathematics predominate. The rest of the subjects are of secondary importance. In general, the male training course is characterized by abstractness, sensitive one-sidedness, deviation of students from nature, from observations of natural phenomena. Such a course can not be applied to women's education, because it does not correspond at all to the storehouse and needs of the female mind.

The female mind is distinguished by its considerable versatility, liveliness, attention to the surrounding reality, active participation of the organs of external senses in every stage of female thinking. Women's thinking is predominantly visual. The female educational course should be more encyclopedic, more visible, more vital than the male training course.

The predominant position of mathematics and languages ​​in the training course, according to PF Kapterev, is a purely external and mechanical concentration of occupations. The source of any concentration, the scientist believed, "is not so much outside, in the studied subjects, as inside, in the learning spirit. Harmony is achieved not with the unity of the studied subject, not with the monotony of classes, but with the conformity of exercises to the nature of the mind, with the harmony of impressions on the mind. "A living harmonious impression on the female mind can be achieved with a variety of educational materials that answer the versatile female mind, "its different stages of development and demands, with the necessary concentration of each individual exercise and harmony and harmony of all."

In the women's educational course, natural-historical subjects are important, in the teaching of which it is necessary to rely on the independent production of observations and experiments by the students, which determines the study of nature by nature, and not by books about it, and on educational excursions."The excursion," the teacher emphasized, "is the influx of fresh air to school, this is the life of nature, bursting into an artificial school life."

In a women's school should be put more seriously and more widely than in men's art."The specificity of the female mind, the more subtle development of the organs of external senses and the greater importance of their activity throughout the life of women, the dexterity of women in all handicrafts - all this makes the sphere of art a dear and dear woman," explained PF Kapterev. The study of the arts also responds to the aesthetic needs of women. This means that in the women's educational course drawing, drawing, modeling, singing, music, as well as various manual works should take a prominent place.

Another branch of knowledge without which female education is unthinkable is hygiene, child psychology and pedagogy within the family, and every women's school must have a kindergarten for the practical training of students. Psychological and pedagogical studies in the kindergarten, PF Kapterev warned, should not be confused with the study of the methods of school teaching. The study of teaching methods is a purely professional exercise that does not have a general educational value;"We are now talking about a general education course," he explained.

PF Kapterev also expressed some considerations concerning higher education. He noted that higher education, both male and female, can be general and special. The goal of higher general education is to expand the person's outlook, to accustom him to a conscious and critical attitude to surrounding phenomena both in nature and in human society;the goal of higher special education is to enrich a person with information on a group of related subjects and to accustom him to systematic thinking and research in a certain sphere of phenomena. We do not have a higher general education, it can only be the fruit of self-education;in higher schools receive a higher education.

To the highest special scientific education, in the opinion of PF Kapterev, every woman can be admitted, appropriately prepared for it. He once again recalled that the psyche of a man and a woman is different, their minds taken as a whole are different. Therefore, the organization of the upbringing and education of women should be specific."But," the scientist emphasized, "that private activity of the mind, which consists in purely scientific thinking and research, in the strict search for truth, verification of the results obtained, the discovery of mistakes made, is quite the same for men and women."Therefore, when a woman tries to solve any scientific problem, she abandons all her female specific qualities and lives at that time not as a woman, but as a thinking mind, as a partial embodiment of the world mind, subject only to the requirements of logic and the rules of science. From this point of view, the teacher believed, it is absolutely superfluous to create higher education institutions for women: they can study science with men, in the same classrooms, with the same professors. It is important not to look at serious scientific talent, as the scientist emphasized: "People with a divine spark in their souls, with a fine serious desire for scientific truth, little, and once in someone - anyway, in a man or woman - this spark caught fire,then it is necessary to give generously all means to develop a wonderful gift in oneself, and not to put up artificial obstacles. "

PF Kapterev singled out six groups of professional work, corresponding to the nature of women. The most suitable activity is pedagogical. In the female mind, the scientist recalled, "the idea of ​​the individual has immense significance and everything that is a person and stands with her in close connection is close and understandable to a woman."

Medical activities also meet the nature of women, so it is available to women in its various forms: medical, medical, obstetrical, pharmacist, and so on.

The sphere of art - singing, music, painting, sculpture, stage dramatic activity, dancing( ballet) - fully corresponds to female psychology. Women, according to the scientist, constantly strive for visual, figurative. The need to express their mental states outside them is much stronger than that of men, in general they are

alive, mobile and at the same time very clever in any manual work, which is very important for art.

Women, with their practicality, a quick understanding of personality, are very suitable for trading and accounting profession. It is accessible to them and bureaucratic activity.

The agricultural profession, according to the scientist, "satisfies two prominent properties of the female nature: the desire to observe the surrounding phenomena, constantly to a large extent use the organs of external senses in their activities, and the practicality of women."

Handicraft activities of women include primarily sewing skills, cooking skills, etc.

Vocational education of women can be obtained at appropriately arranged courses and in schools."Otherwise, with some general education schools, women will not reach an independent position for a long time and will, willy-nilly, be only the companions of men, will depend on them and obey them. Equal joint social activities of men and women without women's professional education are impossible, "the author concluded.

Thus, the women's education course, presented by PF Kapterev, takes into account the psychological characteristics of women and realizes the ideal of a truly humane and real female education.